BOSTON UNIVERSITY

0 J

BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Thesis

AN ANALYSIS OP MENTAL IMAGERY IN CHILDREN'S SILENT READING

Submitted by Vida Stevens C lough (A. B., Bates College, 1919)

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of ifester of Education

1943

First Reader: Donald D. Durrell, Professor of Education

Second Reader : Helen Blair Sullivan, Assistant Professor of Education

Third Reader: M. Agnella Gunn, Assistant Professor of English

^cton University School of Education

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i

INDEX OF TABLES ii

I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OP PROBLEM 1

II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PRESENT DISCUSSION 4

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES 4

• WHAT IS MENTAL IMAGERY? 13

IMAGERY TYPES 15

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND KINDS OF IMAGES 17

MENTAL IMAGERY IN CHILDREN 22

SEX DIFFERENCES 23

FUNCTIONS OF MENTAL IMAGERY 25

III CONSTRUCTION OF EXPERIMENT 29

MATERIAL 29

SUBJECTS 37

TESTS 38

METHOD 44

SCORING THE TESTS FOR MENTAL IMAGERY 48

IV DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 54

V INT ERPRETAT IONS AND IMPLICATIONS 89

VI SUM ARY AND CONCDJSIONS 114

APPENDIX 117

BIBLIOGRAPHY 128

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Deep appreciation and grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Donald D. Durrell, Dean of the School of Education and Professor of Education at Boston University, for his constant encouragement, assistance, suggestions, and criticisms throughout this entire investigation.

Gratitude and indebtedness is also expressed to the superintendents, principals, teachers and pupils ■who so cheerfully cooperated in order that this study might be made.

Vida Stevens C lough

INDEX OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO SEX AND GRADE OF THE

470 PUPILS IN THIS STUDY 37

II SCALE FOR MEASURING MESIAL IMAGERY IN SILENT

READING OF THE 470 PUPILS 50

III COMBINED SCORES IN MENTAL IMAGERY OF 470 PUPILS

IN GRADES IV, V AND VI 55

IV INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MENTAL IMAGERY SCORES

BY GRADE LEVELS 56

V SCORES IN MENTAL IMAGERY INDIVIDUAL REPORTS (ORAL)

VERSUS GROUP TEST (WRITTEN) 58

VI SEX DIFFERENCES IN MENTAL IMAGERY SCORES BY 60 GRADE LEVELS & 61

VII MENTAL IMAGERY SCORES OF 470 PUPILS ON THE INDOOR

SELECTION VERSUS THE OUTDOOR SELECTION 64

VIII 105 CASES OF MENTAL AGE VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY 66

IX 175 CASES OF READING AGE VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY 68

X READING GROUPING (A, B AND C) VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY. • 70

XI LIKING TO READ VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY (HISTOGRAM) .... 72

XII LIKING TO READ VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY 73

XIII AMOUNT OF FREE READING VERSUS MENTAL IMAGERY 75

XIV SCORES IN MENTAL IMAGERY BY PUPILS WHO PREFERRED I.DVIES VERSUS SCORES BY PUPILS WHO PREFERRED THE RADIO 77

XV SCORE'S IN MENTAL IMAGERY BY PUPILS WHO PREFERRED TO READ THEIR OWN STORIES VERSUS PUPILS WHO PREFERRED TO HEAR STORIES READ 79

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A

INDEX OF TABLES (cont.)

TABLE PAGE

XVI ASSOCIATIONS RECALL, VERSUS IMAGERY SCORE 81

XVII PREFERENCE IN KIND OF STORIES VERSUS Il&GERY

SCORE 83

XVIII 35 WHO DIDN'T LIKE TO READ

VERSUS AMOUNT OF READING

VERSUS KIND OF READING

VERSUS ASSOCIATIONAL RECALL 85

XIX 26 PUPILS WHO PREFERRED THE FUNNIES

VERSUS AMOUNT OF READING

VERSUS ASSOC IAT IONAL RECALL

VERSUS LIKING TO READ 87

iii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In the past, hypotheses have been made regarding causes for the individual's possession of mental imagery in silent reading, yet little data has been collected and tabulated showing the accompaniments of mental imagery, correlating abilities, skills, interests, and possibilities for its development through training.

Mental imagery shall be thought of throughout this discussion as the percept in the mind's eye which accompanies silent reading and includes visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic, and miscellaneous imagery.

In this particular investigation the writer is not concerned -with the permanence, quality, placement, or fluctuation of the image except as spontaneous remarks are made and recorded.

The purpose of this study is to present data which will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. Is there any relation between mental age and mental imagery?

2. Are pupils who are keen in one or two types of mental imagery equally keen in all types?

3. Can a child get a mental image from reading one type of reading selection and yet not get an image from another type?

1

4. If such is the case is there any relation between a child's experience and his mental imagery?

5. Are there any significant differences of mental imagery in any one grade, four, five, or six?

6. Is there any difference between the mental imagery of boys and girls?

7. Is there any relation between a child who does not like to read and mental imagery?

8. Is there any relation between the amount of reading and mental imagery?

9. Would a child who prefers movies or the radio have a better score in mental imagery?

10* Would a child who prefers to read his own stories or have some one read to him have a better score in mental imagery?

11. Is there any relation between associational recall and degree of imagery?

12. Is there any relation between reading age and mental imagery?

13. Is there any relation between ability grouping in reading and mental imagery?

14. Can a way be found for constructing a scale which will measure mental imagery?

From the foregoing questions it is apparent that this study has as main purposes :

1# An attempt to construct a scale -which will measure the extent and degrees of mental imagery present in the silent reading of pupils in grades four, five, and six*

2. Discovery of relationships which may determine some of the specific factors that show positive, or negative, or no correlation with a high or low degree of mental imagery present in silent reading.

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PRESENT DISCUSSION

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PRESENT DISCUSSION Review Of Related Studies

The study of mental imagery and experiments with it extend for long periods into the past. As long ago as Aristotle the recognition of images played a part in mental processes. Investigation of mental imagery, chiefly visual imagery, was begun by Fechner in 1860 -any researches have followed, but of the early pioneers no one has approached the problem with the thoroughness and magnitude of Galton who began his work in 1880 J/

By means of the famous Galton questionnaire, he investigated the visual imagery of 100 men. By individual interrogation he examined the imagery of a large number of men, women, and children, the exact number of which is not known. Through the cooperation and help of school teachers, he discovered much about the vividness of mental imagery of school children. He dealt exclusively with imagery of objects - concrete imagery, as distinguished from verbal - and reported great variations in the vividness, clearness, and permanence of the images of individuals. He very strongly believed that

1/ Gustav I. Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik, Breitkopf and Hart el, Leipsig, 1860, p. 3.

2/ Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Taculty and Its Develop- ment, Ikcmillan & Co., London, 1883, p. 89.

4

5

the power of visualization could be developed by education.-/ No attempt in this study will be made to present a critical survey of all previous research in the field of mental imagery. Eadison Bentley in his monograph on Msntal Imagery gives a splendid history of early studies^/, and ^ilf red Lay in his doctor's dissertation from Columbia reviews in a complete manner all investigations of this subject made up to 1898

Lay made a study of mental imagery, a comparison between visual and auditory images, through a combination of subjective and objective methods. Lay£/ read aloud to 100 college men and women a paragraph calculated to suggest visual and auditory images, then asked them to write down all they could remember of it. Prom the words they used, Lay calculated the percentage of both visual and auditory images.

Lay—/ also sent out a questionnaire, patterned partially after the one by Galton, to 125 well-known painters of Hew York City, to discover if they had a higher power of visualization than ordinary people.

1/ Ibid., p. 105^

2/ IStdison Bentley, "The Uemory Image," /unerican Journal of Psychology, (October, 1899), XI, pp. 1-48.

3/ Tilfrid Lay, Mental Imagery Experimentally and Subjectively Considered, Doctor's Dissertation, Columbia University, 1898, pp. 47-54.

4/ Ibid., p. 6.

5/ Ibid., p. 16.

In addition, Lay_/ made a study of the consonants used by Shelley, Thompson, Browning, and others in their poetical works, and calculated from them their types of imagery.

He concluded that there are great individual differences in visual and auditory images^ that painters do not have any extraordinary power in recalling visual images^ that there are great differences in the possession of word imagery^./ that word-art iculatory imagery seems to be the cause of some of the mistakes in writing (such as the substitution of a b for a p), particularly those which would not be mistakes if the pronunciation were slightly altered^ and that the spontaneous quality of our mental imagery should be developed. 6/

Itost of the early investigations dealt with voluntary imagery or the ability to evoke certain specified images at will. Very little attention had been given to a study of spontaneous imagery, or the normal functioning of imagery in mental processes.

1/ rrilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 25.

2/ Ibid., p. 11.

3/ Ibid., p. 16.

4/ Ibid., p. 40.

5/ Ibid., p. 44.

6/ Ibid., p. 59.

However, in 1909, George Bettsi/ divided his study- between investigation of voluntary imagery and spontaneous imagery.

Using the questionnaire method, supplemented by personal interviews, Betts, in four experiments, using college students as subjects, investigated voluntary imagery*

For the first experiment he used 46 Cornell College students, for the second, 34 Cornell College students, for the third, 45 Teachers College students, and for the fourth, 18 psychologists,

Betts developed a method of scoring. The college students rated their own imagery as being very clear and vivid, good, fair, faint, or none at all. Betts scored these five classifications, after the student judged his own imagery, as one, two, three, zero, and five, in order named above. Ee then multiplied the number rating by the number of cases which came under it, and thus arrived at a score.il/

In his experiment with voluntary imagery he foiuid that 26 percent had very clear images, 32 percent good images, 24 percent fair images, 13 percent faint images, and only 5 percent no images. He, likewise, found a slight positive correlation with ability in imagery and ability in college studiesS{ a marked

1/ George II. Betts, Distributions and Functions of ?:ental

Imagery, Doctor's Dissertation, Columbia University, 190S, p. 10.

2/ Ibid., p. 45. 3/ Loc. cit. 4/ Loc. cit.

difference between "voluntary imagery in college students and those specialists more advanced in thought who are dealing with abstract lines of thought"^ and visual imagery lower than other types

In the second part of his experiment, in the investigation of spontaneous imagery, he used both the methods of interrupted and uninterrupted thinking in questioning a total of 198 college students. These students were apportioned for interrogation among five tests. The student was given a certain number of seconds to write down the names of as many things as came to his mind in a given number of seconds, at a stated time, to show his visual, auditory, and other kinds of imagery.

Betts concluded that thinking goes on without intervention of imagery; that "imagery often serves as a back- ground for the meaning with which we are dealing, but it cannot be said to be essential"; that most people can command more imagery than they normally employ in their thinking; and that imagery functions most in our thinking when our thought is baffled and also at times when percepts would be of great assistance.

3/

l/ Loc. cit.

2/ George H. Betts, Ibid., p. 46. 3/ Ibid., p. 94.

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label l^ernaldi/, in 1912, using both the subjective and objective method in testing, made a study of both verbal imagery and object imagery through the testing individually of five men and six women. Fernald gave tests in spelling, pronounciation of words, description of words, and drawing, which were memory tests. She was the first person, to the writer's knowledge, to report a study of imagery in connection with silent

	2/ readings' Twenty-one short passages of prose and poetry were used, some abstract in type and some concrete. These were typewritten and read silently by the subject, who was then asked to reproduce the contents, and was examined individually in order to get introspective data. Different rates in reading were allowed for different passages in order to determine whether rapidity was correlated with the use of any particular form of imagery. She concluded that certain individuals have very distinct and accurate imagery belonging to a given sensory field, while others make little use of any imagery^ that "the individual differences in imagery are too complex to be stated adequately in terms of type"S{ that "visualizers are more rapid readers than l/ Mabel R. Fernald, Diagnosis of Mental Imagery, Doctor's Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1912, p. 130. 2/ Ibid., p. 24. 3/ Ibid., p. 128. 4/ Ibid., p. 130.

others, since they are not delayed by the audit ory-vocal-mot or accompaniment"; on the -whole, that "there is a greater tendency to respond to a suggestion of visual imagery than to one for any other sensory f ield"^ that the "majority of persons are auditory or auditory-vocal-motor for words, but predominantly visual in their non-verbal thinking" •£/ T7hile Fernald's conclusions are very interesting, too few subjects were used to warrant assurance in her data.

In 1919, Charles H. Gr if fitted/ made a study to discover the nature and extent of individual differences in imagery. He used 112 college men and women, beginning students in psychology, as subjects. His experiment, divided into four periods, using three periods for individual tests and one period for small group tests, investigated both concrete imagery, the frequency of the different kinds of imagery, and the quantitative aspect of verbal imagery. He concltided that in the concrete field, visual imagery nearly always ranks first, but that in the verbal field, inner speech ordinarily predominate sf-^ that the sex differences

1/ !iabel R. Fernald, Ibid., p. 46. 2/ Ibid., p. 48.

3/ Charles H. Griffitts, Individual Differences in Imagery,

Doctor's Dissertation, University of " ichigan, 1919, p. 14.

4/ Ibid., p. 72.

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are smalLJ; and that the term imagery type is misleading, for there was no evidence to assume that an individual belonged to a distinct type, such as a visual or auditory typeȣ/

Until recent years all the surveys have been confined to a study of voluntary or spontaneous imagery, subjective or objective research, the proof of the presence of imagery, the existence of many types of imagery, the relation and correlation of kinds, percentage distribution showing diversity of images in individuals, permanence and clarity of images, sex differences, memory images of objects, places, persons previously seen, and images of all types which arise from stimuli given in various forms.

arjorie Brennan?/ in 1938, investigated imagery- differences in relation to children's silent reading. Three paragraphs from basal readers -ere presented, both orally and in written form, to fifty-three fifth and sixth grade children. Stimulus words were used for each paragraph according to the free written association technique; the responses were analyzed and arranged to show the extremes and range. A stimulus sentence

1/ Ibid., p. 19. 2/ Ibid., p. 66.

3/ Ilarjorie C. Brennan, A Study of Children's Imagery in Visual and Auditory uonprehension, unpublished ;jjcl. "lliesis, Boston University, 1958.

was also presented to a fourth, fifth, and sixth grade followed by controlled responses. She found wide ranges in the imagery of the group of children tested regarding vividness, color, size of objects and people, appearance of objects, people, animals, scenery, and the time element.

This study was followed by one in 1939 by Adra Travis-/

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who continued an investigation of imagery in silent reading by her study of fifty-one adults and two children.

The subjects read silently three carefully selected passages, then, after the reading, in a personal interview she questioned, in an objective manner, each person regarding his imagery.

She found that practically all possessed visual imagery, whereas only about half the number reported auditory imagery; that there was gres.t variation in permanence, clarity, quality, and color of the visual image; that there were wide differences in other kinds of imagery.^ and that the capacity for imagery varied not so much according to subject matter as according to the interest in the subject matter.

1/ Adra S. 77avle, A Siudy of l ental Imagery in Silent Reading , Unpublished Sd. Thesis, Eoston University, 1939, pp. 1-74.

2/ Ibid., p. 30.

3/ Ibid., p. 61.

In order to set the stage, so to speak, for this study, the writer will present a review of expression of opinion on pertinent topics.

?Taat Is Mental Imagery?

According to Dr. Arthur I. Gates, "no one knows precisely what imagery is, on what mechanism it depends or how to examine it accurately in children.

"1/

Others have made an attempt to define it.

"imagery is a name for concrete mental processes taken in their immediate and varied individualities. Distinct images are emphasized portions of this process what James designates substantive states. Series of images constitute the imagery of separate moments as emphasized factors arise and pass away," observes MacLennan.il/

1/ Arthur I. Gates, The Psychology of Reading and Spelling, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1922, p. 99.

2/ S. F. TacLennan, "The Image and the Idea," Psychological Review, (April, 1922), IX, p. 69.

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Hicks gives us this thought. "Some so called 'images1, certain visual and auditory images more especially seem to stand over against the apprehending sxibject and to be for him objects in space, no less decidedly than the physical things of nature seem to stand over against him and to be for him objects in space,

A rather unique definition is given by Lay who states, "rental imagery might finally be defined as the content of our mind when we have no sensation but yet are not asleep; when we are alone in the dark, in complete silence, and oblivious of the chair or bed or bit of ground on which we happen to be sitting, lying, or standing" J*/

Although an attempt at definition is difficult, and although mental imagery is illusive of precise description, yet by means of the attributes, potentialities, and accompani- ments of mental imagery, one can discern its presence. Research has established its existence, TOiy individuals possess it remains for future investigations.

}7 G. Dawes Hicks, "On the Nature of Images," British Journal of Psychology, (October, 1924), XV, p. 125.

2/ Tilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 3.

Imagery Types

Through a study of differences in imagery one unconsciously becomes better aware of its nature.

Ibst of the investigators following Galton have seemed to indicate that the individual with little visual imagery must have predominance of imagery of another sort which is clear. Galton, however, did not agree vrith this viewpoint «2/

This doctrine of imagery types and marked individual differences followed Galton' s studies.

"There seems to be no doubt that the great majority of students are predominantly visual," reports Titchener*^/

1 acLennan reported that the images "vary in character and coloring to an indefinite degree, although typical forms predominate in each of us.

»3/

Many of the early investigators were very positive that an individual belonged to either one type or another and were thus classified as visual, or auditory.

1/ Francis Galton, op. cit., p. 50.

2/ Edward B. Titchener, A Textbook of Psychology, Kacmillan & Co., New York, 1921, p. 59.

3/ S. F. FacLennan, op. cit., p. 69,

16

It appears to the -writer that of the recent investigators in this field, Fernald has summarized in a very clear manner the present opinion regarding types. Research substantiates her conclusions •

t%We have been forced to conclude, therefore, that the individual differences in imagery are too complex to be stated adequately in terms of 'differences in type,' unless this type is carefully explained for each individual case. It -would be a difficult task to pick visual, auditory, or motor types from among our subjects, although it is easy to discover certain ones vrho make much use of visual imagery, of auditory or motor, and others -who use little or none of a given form. TTe have found that all of our subjects use ■with readiness at least two forms and most of them use more."^

Griffitts, also reporting in recent years, concurs ■with Fernald in her opinion regarding types. "The results," he declares, ."show great differences but there is little, if any, evidence for types. "J!/

1/ Label R. Fernald, op. cit., p. 130. 2/ Charles H. Griffitts, op. cit., p. 14.

Individual Differences And Kinds Of Images

There is much evidence to support the theory that there are great individual differences in mental imagery. There is diversity of opinion whether power in visual or auditory imagery predominates, no agreement regarding sex differences, or adult imagery versus imagery of children.

BettsV finds visual imagery lower than other types.

Armstrong^/j using the Galton questionnaire in study- ing imagery of 188 college students, finds visual imagery greatly in excess of other types.

However, French^ likewise in studying college students, 118 Vassar juniors, through using Titchener's questionnary, finds no predominance of the power of visual imagery. He states, "The differences in mental imagery are almost entirely a matter of degree. All are able to call up visual, auditory and tactile images. Only one or two are lack- ing in either taste, smell, temperature, or motor images."^/

1/ George H. Betts, op. cit., p. 46.

2/ A. C. Armstrong, "The Imagery of American Students," Psychological Review, (1894), I, p. 496.

3/ F. C. French, "Mental Imagery of Students," Psychological Review, (October, 1902), IX, p. 55.

4/ Loc. cit.

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From this survey he concluded that "in most people the mind is capable by effort of all kinds of sense imagery, although, as a usual thing, its content is limited to one or two special forms.

Valentine^/, in studying the functions of images in appreciation of poetry, reports decided individual differences with a great range of capacity for imagery.

Galton's well-known researches carried out in 1875 ■with respect particularly to visual memory images, established once and for all the fact that there is extraordinary divergence among individuals in the power of visualizing Ji/

With respect to auditory imagery, Hicks declares it is far less frequent than visual imagery, but it is by no means infrequent. He gives this example. "There are persons v;ho declare after having listened to a performance of the Passion liisic of Bach that they can recall at will without difficulty in the silence of their homes exactly what they heard in the concert room.

"4/

17 F. C. French, op. cit., p. 56.

2/ A. W« Valentine, "Functions of Images in Appreciation

of Poetry," British Journal of Psychology, (July, 1924), p. 169.

3/ Francis Galton, op. cit., p. 115.

4/ G. Dawes Hicks, op. cit., p. 135.

Vaughan says in reference to types of imagery that one sort of imagery may predominate in a given individual, but that, although one sort is more vivid than others, correlation not compensation is the rule. "A person who excels in one kind of imagery is apt, generally speaking, to excel in other kinds."!/

"rilliam James, by way of explanation of the different kind of images, says, "images of taste, for example, occur in conjunction with some perception, the image of a sour taste may be occasioned by the sight of an unripe apple.

"The most vivid touch images come when we ourselves barely escape local injury, or when we see another injured.

"Olfactory images may arise, for example, when one is looking at a scentless carnation.

"Kinesthetic imagery is perhaps the least accessible of all imagery to exact inspection. "£/

1/ 7"ayland F. Vaughan, General Psychology, Double day Do ran Company, Inc., New York, 1936, p. 387.

2/ "rilliam James, Principles of Psychology, Henry Holt & Co., New York, iy<IY, pp. 6b and fc>6.

One of our recent investigators, Griffiths, concludes from the tabulation of his data that "Visual imagery ranks highest in clearness in 90?£ of the 87 cases, auditory in 5% and kinesthetic in He declares that no subject -with

poor visual imagery has clear auditory imagery. Some with clear visual imagery have poor auditory. There is a positive correlation with clearness of visual and of auditory imagery J*/

In a rather complete manner Lay has stated the kinds of images . "Under mental imagery I wish to place not only the images of the so-called five senses, but all the mental representations that are, in part or in entirety, the reflection or echo of the world of sensations.

1. Visual 6. Thermal

2. Auditory 7. Sfotor

3. Tactile 8. Those of pain (not touch)

4. Gustatory 9. Organic

5. Olfactory 10. Those of emotion 3/

1/ Charles H. Griffitts, op. cit., p. 14. 2/ Loc. cit.

3/ Wilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 4.

There should be brief comments on the eidetic iinage.

Writers have believed that some people in addition to the usual visual image have the power to see an eidetic image. In the case of the visual memory image, the object is merely imaged, in the case of the eidetic image, the original object is seenJL^

Allport believes that power for detecting eidetic images in children can be discovered through the portion of the Binet test, drawing designs from memory J*/

Studies made show that approximately 60% of all children between 10 and 15 years of age are able to produce eidetic images. Ability tisually retreats with advancing age.iL'

1/ G. W« Allport, "Eidetic Imagery," The British Journal of Psychology, (October, 1924), XT', p. 99.

2/ Ibid., p. 100.

3/ Ibid., p. 101.

Mental Imagery In Children

1 any wr iters comment on the power of mental imagery in children.

Galton concluded that on the -whole such imagery was more frequent in childhood than adult life. Ee said, "There is reason to believe that it is very high in some young children, who seem to spend years of difficulty in distinguishing between the subjective and objective world .

1/

This opinion is also affirmed by Betts. He says, "That children should employ much more imagery than adults in their thinking is wholly in accord with the mode of the mind's development. The child is much nearer the world of the concrete. The child's mental world is relatively a world of percepts, covering the range of all the senses".^/

Drummond^/ believed children's drawings are a mode of expression which indicate the presence of visual images.

1/ Francis Galton, Statistics of ental Imagery, 1 ind 1880, 5, p. 301.

2/ G. H. Betts, op. cit., p. 44.

3/ Lfergaret Drummond, "The Nature of Images," British Journal of Psychology, (July 1926), XVII, p. 15.

Sex Differences

Opinions vary regarding sex differences in imagery.

Galton decided from his experiments and individual investigations that "The power of visualizing is higher in the female sex than in the male, and is somewhat, but not much, higher in public schoolboys than in men. .After maturity is reached, the further advance of age does not seem to dim the faculty, but rather the reverse, judging from numerous statements to that effect; but advancing years are sometimes accompanied by a growing habit of hard abstract thinking, and in these cases - not uncommon among those whom I have questioned - the faculty undoubtedly becomes impaired" •}/

According to Gr iff itts men are superior to women in the clearness of mental images. He reports the following differences :

Men	Visual	Auditory	Kinesthetic
93.3	73.8	60.6
Women	75.6	62.3	56.5

1/ Francis Galton, op. cit., p. 99. 2/ C. H. Griff itts, op. cit., p. 13.

I

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24

However, the students scored their own papers, so Griffitts modifies his report by stating "that it is evident either that the imagery of men is relatively superior to ■women, or that the women were more conservative, in grading images"

In his conclusions, however, he states that the sex differences were very small, too small to draw any real conclusions ,2/

1/ Ibid., p. 13. 2/ Ibid., p. 69.

Functions Of Cental Imagery

Are images of distinct value to our mental processes? Most -writers believe they have true functions and real purpose.

Galtonj/ has stated that we can think -without images as is the case of those occupied on mental -work involving abstruse generalization and abstract thought,

"There can be memory and memory of a very reliable kind without any representation in the form of an image of what is remembered," declares Hicks

Betts^/ likewise states in his conclusions that thinking can and does go on without intervention of imagery.

All three writers stress the value of imagery in our mental life.

To Betts it is evident that most persons can command a far wider range of imagery than they normally employ in thinking .i/

1/ Francis Gait on, op. cit., p. 116.

2/ G. Dawes Hicks, op. cit., p. 136.

3/ George H. Betts, op. cit., p. 46.

4/ Loc . c it .

That people are privileged to enjoyment through mental imagery is surely one of its functions.

Many people whose imagery is ready and varied give themselves over to the enjoyment of images that come automatically in day dreams or in reading poetry or stories, declares Margaret Drummond

To Pear, "the memory world and the thinking world of a person who never uses visual imagery would seem comparable to the perceptual world of an animal without eyes."£/ Some individuals are more conscious than others that they have the power and pleasures of imagery.

! leaning and imagery are closely related. Ideas are always based in images I'acLennan emphatically declares. "Lay the finger upon the concept and it melts away into irages. — - l*e must next examine into the precise nature of the function which the image supports.

-.3/

V Ijargaret DrummOnd, op. cit., p. 10.

2/ T. H. Pear, "Privileges and Limitations of Visual Imagery," British Journal of Psychology, (April, 1925), XV, p. 363.

3/ S. F. LacLennan, op. cit., p. 70.

"Tflien the precise imagery flashes into mind a distinct sense of relief comes over us. The more vivid the picture, the greater is our assurance. It is imagery which

ensures a final realizing sense to ideation. Only when

we realize the presence of imagery as the embodiment of symbols, and of reference as the spirit of control for imagery, can we understand the real nature of ideas and keep clear of the rocks on either hand which have such woe to thought.

Imagery does not always supply the correct idea or give the correct impression. A false concept supplies erroneous meaning and builds an erroneous image. This fact was brought out by I ar jorie Brennan^/ who showed the great variance in children's mental constructs even in the same classroom. Under the writer's data more information will be added on this thought.

V S. F. I.racLennan7 op. cit., p. 79. 2/ Marjorie Brennan, op. cit.

It

These images frequently are representative of

incidents in the past of the subject and are often not at all appropriate; in the case of reading, they are often mis- representations of the matter read. One can scarcely doubt that many children are victims of this automatic functioning of the associative process. The false tales told in good faith by many children are evidence of this ."J/

Another proof of the "close dependence of meaning upon imagery is found in the constant resort to imagery -when thought is baffled."£/

mental images in the mind is of value not only in stimulating ideas and meaning but as an awakening of the finer emotions.

that the arousing of vivid

1/ I-'argaret Drummond, op. cit., p. 11 2/ S. F. MacLennan, op. cit., p. 74. 3/ Wilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 57.

CHAPTER III CONSTRUCTION OF EXPERIMENT

CHAPTER III CONSTRUCTION OF EXPERIMENT

Fjaterial

As previously stated, this study has as its main

purposes :

1. An attempt to construct a scale vrhich will measure the extent and degrees of mental imagery present in the silent reading of pupils in grades four, five, and six.

2. Discovery of relationships which may determine some of the specific factors that show positive, negative,

or no correlation with a high or low degree of mental imagery present in silent reading.

The choice of subject matter was the next con- sideration* For the experiment with fourth, fifth, and sixth grade pupils, the writer chose the following material.

The selections were one or more paragraphs from a basal series of books, carefully graded for vocabulary, interest, and comprehension for the particular grade for which they were written. An indoor and outdoor passage, which appeared to offer variety in appeal, interest, amount and kinds of imagery, was selected for each grade from the following books. Each test had Wo parts, as indicated on the next page.

29

Gates-Ayer, Let's Look Around, The Macmillan Co. 1940 Indoor (Bingo And The Angry Rooster) Outdoor (Adventures Of The ^oodlawns)

Gates-Ayer, Let's Travel On, The I "'acini 11 an Co, 1940 Indoor (The Squirrel's Tale) Outdoor (His First Bee Tree)

Gates-Ayer, Let's Go Ahead, The Uacmillan Co. 1940 Indoor (Younger Brother Travels ^est) Outdoor (Meeting The T"ild ""est Show)

The selections themselves follow.

GRADE IV - (Indoor Passage)

BINGO AND THE ANGRY ROOSTER - Helen Hill and Violet Uaxwell

from LET'S LOOK AROUND - Gates-Ayer

At last Charlie had finished helping Mrs. Brown make the butter. They had taken it out of the churn. Mrs. Brown had put it in a big wooden bowl and beaten it with wooden butter paddles. She had put cold water on it so that all the buttermilk was squeezed and washed out.

She gave Charlie some butter in a smaller bowl so that he could finish making it by himself.

GRADE IV - (Outdoor Passage)

ADVENTURES OF THE WOODL/OTS - Carol Ryrie Brink from LET'S LOOK AROUND - C-ates-Ayer

With berries flying out of their buckets, the children fled down the hill. Over rocks and bushes, helter-skelter they ran. They did not stop till they reached the river bank. There they paused a moment for breath. Then they plunged in, clothes and all, with their buckets balanced on their heads. The river was not deep at this season. It did not take them long to cross.

GRADE V - (Indoor Passage)

THE SQUIRREL'S TALE - Christopher I or ley from LET'S TRAVEL ON - Gates-Ayer

There lay the unpleasant child, fast asleep; and there in the next room was the beautiful Christmas Tree. Parents and nurse had trimmed it -well and gone to bed tired out. From every fragrant bough hung tinsel ornaments, peppermint canes, cornucopias, colored bulbs, popcorn strings, shining trinkets.

		34
	GRADE V - (Outdoor Passage) HIS FIRST BEE TREE - Charles Roberts from LET'S TRAVEL ON - Gates-Ayer One day, on an out-of-the-way corner of the mountain, the little black motherless bear cub, Teddy, stumbled upom a patch of late blueberries - large, plump, very blue, and juicy. He fairly forgot himself in his joy. How good those berries tasted! • He ate as fast and hard as he could. He did not take time to look where he was going. So it happened that, all of a sudden, he fell straight through a thick fringe of blueberry bushes and went rolling and clawing down the face of a steep rock. He fell almost thirty feet and stopped with a bump that left him without breath enough for squealing. The ground was soft, however, and he had no broken bones. It was a deep bowl, not more than forty feet across at the bottom. The rocky sides were so steep that Teddy Bear did not feel at all eager to climb them. But his nose caught an odor that put all thought of escape out of his head.

GRADE VI - (Indoor Passage)

YOUNGER BROTHER TRAVELS WEST - Laura Adams Armer from LET'S GO AHEAD - Gates-Ayer

The boys spent the evening -with the trader in his living room. It was a splendid big stone- walled room with Navaho blankets hanging on the walls and piled halfway to the ceiling in one end of the room. The floor was carpeted with the blankets. A big stone fireplace suggested cosy evenings in the winter time.

GRADE VI - (Outdoor Passage)

MEETING THE TTILD WEST SHOW - Carol Ryrie Brink from LET'S GO AHEAD - Gates-Ayer

. artin and Henry ran here and there trying to see everything. It was bad enough trying to see everything that went on in the three rings of the show during the performance, but this was even worse. Things were being unloaded from all the cars, wagons were being assembled, cowboys and Indians were driving oxen and leading rearing, neighing ponies. Over in the meadow, Indian tepees were being pitched. In the midst of the field, the enormous show tent was going up with plenty of shouts and cries, grunts and swearing.

Subjects

The subjects of this survey were 470 pupils from grades four, five, and six living in two different cities and tyro different towns in widely separated areas of Massachusetts.

Approximately half the pupils came from average American families, a sprinkling came from superior hones, and nearly half from communities where there was a large foreign population, chiefly Portuguese, Greek, Italian, and French. It is thus observed the subjects were a fair cross section of our average school population.

Distribution according to sex and grade was as nearly uniform as possible as the figures in Table I indicate.

TABLE I. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO SEX AND GRADE OF THE 470 PUPILS IN THIS STUDY

Grade	Boys	Girls	Total
IV	87	72	150
V	68	76	144
VI	77	90	167
Total	232	238	470

Tests For Grades IV, V, And

38

GRADE IV - (Indoor Passage) BINGO AND THE ANGRY ROOSTER

Introductory Questions

1. Do you like to read? Yes No

2. Do you enjoy reading enough to read books either from your school library or public library? Yes No

Number of books read this year

3. What kind of stories do you like best?

4. Do you like books better with or without pictures?

5. Do you enjoy a play or story better to see it as a motion picture or to listen to it over the radio?

6. TThich do you enjoy better, reading a book yourself or having someone read the same book to you?

Part I - Report On Indoor Passage

1. Do you see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Sketch a diagram of the room, locating all you see, or make a list of what is in your picture.

3. ^at colors do you see?

4. Do you see colors on objects or people? Name the colors and on what you see them.

5. Do you hear any sounds?

6. Do you smell anything?

7. Do you taste anything?

8. How many people do you see? Ages

9. Clearest part of picture?

10. Does the picture remind you of any person you have seen, any place you have visited, any book read, or any movie seen?

GRADE IV - (Outdoor Passage) ADVENTURES OF THE TOODLA^NS

PART II - Report On Outdoor Passage

la Do you see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Sketch a diagram of children's flight. Put an (x) -where they finally came to rest.

3. !&ke a list of everything you see in your picture.

4. Do you see colors in your picture? If so, name them.

5. Do you see colors on objects or people? Name the colors and on "what you see them.

6. Do you hear any sounds?

7. TThat time of year is it? 'That time of day? '"hat is the temperature?

8. Do you smell anything?

9. Do you taste anything? 10. How many people? Ages

11 • Does the picture remind you of any person you have seen, any place you have visited, any book read, or any movie seen?

GRADE V - (Indoor Passage) THE SQUIRRELS TALE

Introductory Questions

1. Do you like to read? Yes No

2. Do you enjoy reading enough to read books either from your

school library or public library? Yes No Number of books read this year . . . . • .

3. Tiat kind of stories do you like best?

4. Do you like books better with or without pictures?

5. Do you enjoy a play or story better to see it as a motion picture or to listen to it over the radio?

6. Tfhich do you enjoy better, reading a book yourself or having someone read the same book to you?

Part I - Report On Indoor Passage

1. Do you see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Sketch a diagram of one room or both rooms. ?iake a list of everything you see.

3. T.T7hat colors do you see?

4. Do you see colors on objects or people? Name the colors and on what you see them.

5. Do you hear any sounds?

6. Do you smell anything?

7. Do you taste anything?

8. What people do you see? Ages

9. Do you see any presents under or near the tree?

10. Does the child remind you of any child you have seen before, or any room you have seen?

11. Does the picture remind you of any book you have read, or any movie you have seen?

GRADE V - (Outdoor Passage)

HIS FIRST BEE TREE PART II - Report On Outdoor Passage

1. Do you see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Make a sketch showing direction Teddy fell and put an (x) where he landed.

3. Do you see colors in your picture? Name the colors and on what you see them.

4. Do you hear any sounds?

5. Do you smell anything?

6. Do you taste anything?

7. What is the time of year? Time of day? Temperature?

8. ""That is the clearest part of your picture?

9. Does the picture remind you of any book you have read, any place you have been, or any movie you have seen?

42

GRADE VI - (Indoor Passage) YOUNGER BROTHER TRAVELS WEST

Introductory 'Questions

1. Do you like to read? Yes No

2. Do you enjoy reading enough to read books either from your school library or public library? Yes No

Number of books read this year

3. "'Tiat kind of stories do you like best?

4. Do you like books better with or -without pictures?

5. Do you enjoy a play or story better to see it as a motion picture or to listen to it over the radio?

6. ^Thich do you enjoy better, reading a book yourself or having someone read the same book to you?

Part I - Report On Indoor Passage

1. Do you. see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Sketch a diagram of the room, locating what you see in the room.

3. Do you see any colors in your picture? Name the colors and on what you see them.

4. Do you hear any sounds?

5. Do you smell or taste anything?

6. How many people do you see? Ages

7. How are they dressed?

8. What is the clearest part of the picture?

9. Does the picture in your mind's eye remind you of any place you have seen, any book read, any movie seen, or any people you have met before?

GRADE VI - (Outdoor Passage)

MEETING THE WILD 7fEST SHOW Part II - Report On Outdoor Passage

1. Do you see a picture in your mind's eye? Yes No

2. Make a list of the things you see or sketch a diagram locating what you see,

3. Do you see any colors in your picture? Name the colors and on what you see then.

4. How many people do you see? 5» Do you hear any sounds?

6. Do you smell anything?

7. Do you taste anything?

8. "^Tiat is the time of year? What is the time of day? "Tiat is the temperature?

9« Is the picture still or moving?

10. Does the picture in your mind's eye remind you of any place you have been, any people yoti have seen, any book you have read, or any movie seen?

Ifethod

In order to get experience and practice and discover the thought processes and mental imagery variances of different pupils, the -writer gave 64 individual tests to pupils in all four sections previously mentioned. It took about an hour to give an individual test, which consisted of the silent reading of both the outdoor and indoor typewritten selections, the oral interrogation by the -writer, and the -writing of the oral responses by the -writer. The presentation of one part of the test was made and the answers recorded before the presentation of the second part was made to the pupil.

In the case of the other 406 pupils, group tests were administered to small numbers of 10 to 15 pupils. In this latter case, the selection, written on the board, was read silently by the pupils, and the questions were then written on the board and read silently by the pupils. The writing of the responses by the pupils themselves was the reverse of the procedure for the individual testing.

The order of presentation of material to the pupil varied. To every other pupil in the individual testing, the indoor selection was submitted first. In the case of the group, the order was varied with each group tested.

Before each individual or each group were given the test, an explanation was made concerning the pictures that come to one's mind while reading.

To each group or pupil the writer made the following explanat ion :

"Some people have more of a picture in their mind's eye than others do. Each person may have a different sort of picture. I want to know exactly what you see, if you see colors, if there are sounds, if there is an odor or taste, or if there is anything you feel in your picture, such as the temperature or wind. Do not be concerned with what llary or John sees or hears. I want to know what you see, or hear, or taste, what comes in your picture. There is no right answer or no wrong answer. If you see nothing, say so; if you see much, tell all you see, hear, taste, smell, and so on."

Explanations were made concerning the same introductory questions asked cf all 470 pupils.

Question 1. Do you like to read?

Explanation: "Do you really and truly enjoy reading? Is reading fun for you? I want you to tell me how you honestly feel about reading books. If you like to read, say yes. If you don't like it, say no.

Question 2. Bo you read books from the library? Yes No Number of books read this year

Explanation: "Do you enjoy reading enough to read library books, either from your school library or public library? How many books have you read this year? Tell me the number you have read."

Question 3. "'Tiat kind of stories do you like the best?

Explanation: "Tell me your favorite kind of story, whether it is fairy or true, history, cowboys, adventure, animals, the very kind which you enjoy most."

Question 4. Do you like books better with pictures or

without ?

Explanation: "Tell me, when you read a book, if you prefer a book with no pictures, or one ?rith pictures."

Question 5. Do you enjoy a play or story better as a motion picture or given over the radio?

Explanation: '^."ould you prefer to see a play or a story at the movies, or would you rather hear that same story on the radio?"

Question 6. "liich do you enjoy better, reading a book yourself or having someone read the same book to you?

Explanation: "Do you enjoy and get more fun from having someone read a story to you, or do you prefer to read that same story yourself? ^ich gives you more pleasure?"

These introductory questions -were the same for the group test as for the individual test. The writer asked the questions orally in the case of the individual test, and the oral responses in each case were recorded by the writer • In the group test, the children read silently, oral explanations were made by the writer, and the children wrote their own answers in as few words as possible.

The steps to the tests for each grade were completed in the following order:

1. Silent reading of the selection.

2. Selection removed from view.

In the individual test, the typewritten selection was removed by the writer. In the group test, the select i§n written in script on the board, was erased by the writer.

3. Reporting and recording answers to questions*

In the individual test, the answers, given orally by the pupil, were recorded and written by the writer.

In the group test, the answers were written by the pupils. The difference between the individual test and the group test has been previously described.

Scoring The Tests For Mental Imagery

The next problem was to devise some means of scoring and recording the mental imagery of the 470 pupils tested.

First a sampling of 100 papers, taken at random, was examined and they were classified into five groups of mental imagery; high, good, average, below average, and poor. The writer then observed, under each classification, comparisons in visual imagery, noting not only presence or absence of colors, but also whether the colors were simply named or definitely associated with a person, his clothing, objects, or scenery. Auditory, olfactory, and gustatory imagery was carefully recorded. The presence of any other imagery, such as motor, kinesthetic, or tactile was noted and considered in one miscellaneous group.

Previous investigations had proven individual differences previous surveys had stressed predominance of one kind of imagery over another.

The writer, in general, found a great predominance of visual imagery over other types of imagery. By types, the writer means kinds of imagery. She refers to the interpretation of types by Fernald^/. Every object, every color was observed, but each color and each object was counted only once, even though it was

1/ I&bel Ruth Fernald, op. cit., p, 130

mentioned under both visual (things, persons seen) and under colors. After elimination of repeated enumerations, and after many comparisons of the test papers, the following scale -was adopted for measuring the mental imagery in silent reading of all the 470 pupils of this study.

It is to be noted, in this particular testing, the scale ran from 0-74. Tests using different selections might have a very different range.

											50
		High	60-74	to to	rH	co	CO	CO	SI
B H P	Good	45 - 59	o to	CM rH	in	in		Oi in*
TABLE II - SCALE FOR MEASURING MENTAL IMAGERY IN SILENT OF THE 470 PUPILS INCLUDED IN THIS SURVEY	Average	31 i o to	rH CM	o rH			m	SI
Below Average	15-29	rH		to	CM	to
Very Poor	0-14-	CO 1 o	1 o	CM 1 o	rH 1 o	rH 1 o	SI
Visual	Colors	Auditory	Olfactory Gustatory	CO g 0 at rH rH o o (0 •H	. Total

51

On pages 52 and 53 are examples of two tests scored and marked according to the imagery scale adopted. It -was a simple matter to score the papers low in imagery, but the papers with high imagery required considerable time and careful examination.

The writer, for the purpose of clarifying the method of scoring for the reader, has, in the case of the test paper, high in imagery, selected and recorded the exact phrases used by the pupil for expressing his visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and miscellaneous imagery.

Boston University 1 ochooi of Education* Li Uary

		52
	Pupil No. 12	Total <»
Indoor - Grade VI	Outdoor - Grade VI
Younger Brother Travels Test	Meeting The Tild Test Show
Can't see any picture o	1. Yes, faintly 2. Animals, claims, tents,ballons y 3. Gray picture, no colors 4. No people 5. No sounds 6. No odors 7. Nothing do I taste 8. Spring 2 P.M. 90° / 9. Don't know 10. Reminds me of a circus I saw /

Pupil No. 29

53

Indoor - Grade V

Outdoor - Grade V

The Squirrels Tale

His First Bee Tree

Child asleep* /3 mother, father, nurse, Visual table, star, squirrels, radio, bookcase, lamp, 2 "windows , door, presents

J^00tr#Canyon

Trees , "-—-Teddy bear

3

Birds Rocks

Saw Teddy fall 20 feet

Blue on bedspread

Blue on bed

Blue on bureau

Green tree Colors Shining balls of ' Ci «

silver, red, green, /V\ yellow, violet, orange

Brown divan

Brown chairs

Red fireplace ^fhite popcorn

Breen bushes Blue sky

Brown trunk of trees Green grass Blue berries

Brown bear *y •

Yellow flowers /

01

I

Sounds

Boy breathing

Clock ticking ^

Radio °

Hear Teddy Bear's feet as

he walks Bushes crackling as he .

fell V Thump when he landed Wind sighing

Odors

Taste

Popcorn Xmas tree

Honey, trees, flowers

3

Blue berries

Misc •

Christmas, winter, 7 P.M. , Reminds me of my cousin's house, and my cousin is 4 like the naughty child*

Summer afternoon 1 o'clock, temperature hot 80° /

Reminds me of two different stories I have read, but I can't remember their f names .

Visual	Indoor	; Outdoor	I Totals
13+9 =22	5 + 7 -12	34
Colors	9	4	13
Auditory	3	4	! *
Olfactory Gustatory	2	4	6
visc.	2		; 4
Totals	&	tt .

CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

		■ 1
	CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA This chapter -will present a description and analysis of the data obtained during this study of ciental imagery in children's silent reading.
	54

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19 pupils made slightly higher scores on the individual test.

29 pupils made slightly higher scores on the group test. 3 pupils made identical scores on both tests.

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The data in Table VI, show that in mental imagery the girls made higher scores than the boys in eaoh grade. Since the boys and the girls were not paired for mental age, the validity of the scores may be questioned. Nevertheless, here are these differences. The mean score for the girls in grade IV, 34.80, was 3.30 higher than the mean score of the boys 31.50. The critical ratio of 1.19 is fairly significant, since it shows that there are 88 chances in a 100 that the girls of grade IV will be superior to the boys in grade IV in mental imagery.

The difference between the mean scores of the boys and girls in grade V was 11.05, in favor of the girls. The critical ratio of 4.54 is very significant and indicative of a virtual certainty that the girls in grade V will always score higher in mental imagery than the boys.

In grade VI the difference between the means was 9.80 in favor of the girls. The critical ratio of 3.68 is again very significant since it indicates a virtual certainty that the girls in grade VI will always score higher in mental imagery than the boys.

It is interesting to observe that the mean score in imagery for the boys in grade VI is slightly lower by a difference of 1.41 than in grade TV, although the difference is too small to be at all significant. It indicates practically an unchanged score in imagery in grades IV, V, and VI for the boys. Chronological age

evidently makes no difference in increasing the amount of imagery for boys. However, the difference in the mean score for the girls in grade VI is 5,09 above the score in grade TV. This may or may not be significant. It evident ly accounts for the slightly higher score made by the pupils of grade VI in the data shown in Table IV. As has been indicated, the boys and girls were not paired for mental ages, hence too much reliability cannot be placed on these differences.

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The data in Table X show the frequencies of the scores in mental imagery made by the 470 pupils, classified in three reading groups, according to ability. The mean score for the highest ability group in reading (A) is 43.3; the mean score for the middle group (B) is 32.6; and the mean score for the lowest group (C) is 23.70. The difference in the mean score between group A and B is 10.7, and the difference in mean score between group B and C is 8.9. The critical ratios of 6.82 and 4.81, respectively, are very significant.

The children were not paired for mental ages in these reading groups, hence too much reliability cannot be placed in the scores and differences.

Nevertheless, the differences are interesting, inasmuch as three reading groups are the usual grouping in the average classroom. The previous table, IX, with a small number of 105 cases, showed a positive correlation of .53 between reading age and mental imagery.

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The data in Table XIII show the frequencies of the scores in mental imagery made by the 470 pupils versus the amount of free library reading. The number of pupils who read less than 5 books was 193, whereas 129 pupils had read 10 and more books. The mean score of those who did little library reading, less than 5 books, is 24.0. The mean score of those who read an average number of books, 5 to 9, is 35.30. The mean score of those who read more than 10 books is 47.8. The difference between the mean score of those who read few books and those who read an average number is 11.3. The critical ratio, 7.34, is significant. The difference between the mean score of those who read an average number of books and those who read much is 12.5. The critical ratio of 10.2 is very significant.

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The data in Table XV show the frequencies of the scores of those who preferred to read their own stories as opposed to those who preferred to hear stories read. Seventy-four percent of the pupils, i.e., 345, prefer to read their own stories. The mean score of those who prefer to read their own stories is 39.2, and the mean score of those who prefer to hear stories read is 26.6, a difference of 10.20. The critical ratio of 7.79 is very significant and indicates a virtual certainty that those pupils who prefer to read their own stories will make a higher score in mental imagery than those who prefer to listen to stories read.

In Table XVI -will be noted the frequencies of the scores in mental imagery versus the number of associations the pupils had while reading. One hundred nine pupils were reminded of nothing, had no association whatsoever. As it will be noted, their mean score in mental imagery is 17.9. One hundred fifty pupils had one type of association, such as a book previously read. Their mean score is seen to be 31.2. Two hundred eleven pupils had more than one type of association, such as a book read, or movie seen, or places visited, or people known. Their mean score is observed to be 43.5. The critical ratios, 7.52 and 8.10, respectively, are very significant.

TABLE XVII - PREFERENCE IN KIND OF STORIES VERSUS IMAGERY SCORE

Kind of Stories	No. Of
Liked Best	Pupils
1. Adventure	106
2. True	90
3. L^ystery	83
4. Fairy	51
5. History	47
6. ^ild West and Cowboys	44
7. The Funnies	26
8. Animals	"23
Total	470

Kind of Story Preferred	1 lean Score Imagery
Adventure	40-44
; ystery	35-39
Animals	35-39
True	30-34
History	30-34
Fairy	30-34
T'7ild T.rest and Cov/boys	25"-29
The Funnies	15-19

In Table XVII is arranged in order of preference the kind of stories liked best. It can be seen that adventure stories are the first choice, with 106 pupils voting for then. From the 470 pupils in grades four, five, and six, only twenty- three voted animal stories as their first choice. Animal stories ranked lowest in preference.

In the second part of the table is arranged in high to low sequence the mean score in imagery received by those who preferred each kind of story. It will be noted that those who preferred adventure stories had the highest score in imagery, a score above the average mean score. Those pupils who liked the Funnies best had the lowest score in imagery, 15-19, which was very low in comparison with the average combined mean score in imagery of the 470 pupils, 34.6. The children who enjoyed best animal, true, history, and fairy stories had scores in imagery close to the mean of the combined grade imagery scores, as can be seen in the table.

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The data in Table XVIII show the amount of free reading, the kind of reading liked best, and the associations of the 35 pupils who did not like to read.

It is noted that 34 of the 35 pupils had not read more than 4 books, and that 19 of the 35 pupils had absolutely no association •while reading. However, it is observed these pupils were quite evenly divided in preference for kind of stories, with the exception of animals. None of them liked animal stories best.

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In Table XIX is presented some data of the 26 pupils who preferred the Funnies. "Thile the numbers are too small to warrant reliability in the data, yet the table is presented for the interest it may contain.

Of the 26 pupils who preferred the Funnies, 18 of them had not read more than 4 library books. Fourteen of the 26 pupils had no association whatever when reading the test passages. Twenty of them said, however, that they liked to read.

CHAPTER V INTERPRETATIONS AND EXPLICATIONS

CHAPTER V

INTERPRETATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Interpretations

It is possible, that, in the previous search for cause or causes of children's inefficient silent reading abilities, educators have overlooked the contribution which mental imagery may make in improving silent reading.

In many talks -with individual children during this study, the writer found that many -were unaware that they had mental pictures accompanying thinking or reading. They had never thought about imagery at all. Pear says, "Some persons Day be more conscious of their confinement in imagery, if confinement it be" than others

Ernest Cobb, the co-author of many delightful and much enjoyed books for children, believes that "no thought takes place except in connection with a mental picture

Others disagree with this theory, but yet are firm believers in the power of mental imagery. Betts stated in the

1/ T. H. Pear, op. cit., p. 363.

2/ Ernest Cobb, The Mind's Syo, Arlo Publishing Company, ~~ Newton Upper Falls, Lass., 1941, p. 13.

89

90

conclusions of his dissertation that "imagery often serves as a background for the meaning with which we are dealing, but it cannot be said to be essential to meaning" «i/

Fernald reported evidence tending to show that "when a process becomes habittialized, it may be performed without the aid of any imagery and a minimum of consciousness of any sort"*£/

It is the writer's opinion that most children are capable of some degree of imagery, that some children are aware of it and use it as an aid to thought, that other children do not know or appreciate the power of imagery, its uses, its accompaniments. "^Jhile thinking may take place without imagery, correct images may be used to clarify thought, and inaccurate images may lead to wrong ideas and misconceptions.

Although both children and adults may be able to read without imagery, think without it, act without it, yet, if they possess it, their purposes, activities, and lives may become more enriched, more fruitful, and meaningful.

The writer agrees with LayV who believes the mental image is of value in our education, as an awakening of our finer emotions, and that it will "appear when we receive our earliest mental training, namely, in our reading, writing, and arithmetic"^1

17 George H. Betts, op. cit., p. 94.

2/ Mabel R. Fernald, op. cit., p. 136. 3/ Wilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 56. 4/ Ibid., p. 57.

If mental imagery can be an asset, educators, interested in the best possible development for each child, should be able to diagnose by a simple test in what degree each child possesses it.

A simple analysis, such as the writer gave in the group test, determined the presence or absence of mental imagery, and detected the wide range possessed by individuals in each classroom. This is noted in Table IV. To shorten the time required to find the variance in imagery, the writer would suggest a more informal method of marking the test papers, which for all practical applications, would serve the purpose, and discover the presence or absence of imagery, classifying the pupil as high, good, average, below average, or very poor in imagery.

Although these tests were given to children of widely differing experiential background, although the selections for the tests were different for each grade, yet the mean scores for each grade varied very little, (Table IV), from the mean score of the combined grades, (Table III). This would appear to indicate that chronological age does not apparently affect the imagery score, that as the child advances in grade level, he is not receiving training which is increasing his score in mental imagery.

There were a few r.ore boys than girls in grade IV. In grade VI, there were a few more girls than boys. The distribution is shown in Table I. The very slight increase in score in grade VI,

(Table IV), may possibly be attributed to this difference, as the findings indicate the girls possess superior imagery.

"hen one examines Table VI for sex differences, one is interested to observe that in all three grades the girls made higher scores in imagery than the boys.

These differences possibly may indicate one of the reasons why boys seemingly have more trouble than girls in learning to read, why there are more reading disability cases among boys than girls.

For years, educators have been interested in this problem. Dr. DurrellJ/ found in his study of 1130 children that retarded reading was twice as frequent among boys as girls. "Among six thousand children given the Durrell-Sullivan Reading Capacity and Achievement Tests, 18 percent of the boys were retarded as compared to 9 percent of the girls "J*/

which appear very early in first grade, such as contrast in

interests and activities, and differences in readiness for reading.

It may be possible that lack of an equal amount of mental

imagery may affect the boys' ability in visual and auditory

discrimination, which is one of the fundamental requirements

17 Donald D. Durrell, Reading Disabilities in the Intermediate Grades, Unpublished Doctor's Dissertation, Harvard University, 1930.

2/ Donald D. Durrell, Improvement of Basic Reading Abilities, Torld Book Company, Hew York, T9"40", p. 281 ,

7 any causes have been advanced for these differences

in learning to read, and thereby contribute to confusion. It may be in the middle grades that lack of mental imagery brings faulty percepts and thus leads to erroneous ideas and meanings.

The indoor and outdoor selection, which comprised the test for each grade, -was entirely different in content and imagery possibilities, yet considering these facts, it can be seen from Table VII, that there was a fairly good correlation between the scores received on both types of selections •

The writer believes that the child's experiential background did have an influence in the child's imagery. Some pupils failed to see in their mind's eye a picture from one selection, yet could obtain a mental picture from the other selection. A number of children remarked, "I can't see anything in my mind after reading this". However, when the second passage was presented, they did see a picture, and vice versa.

The type of selection, influenced by associations, experiences, previously built concepts, evidently does have an effect on the imagery score, but the fact that there was a fair positive correlation indicates pupils can develop comparable mental images fror different types of selections,

such as were used in this study.

Evidently mental age has very little effect on mental imagery. The slightly positive correlation (Table VIII) was exceedingly low. As the mental age increases, there evidently is no corresponding increase in imagery. The girls did show a slight growth (Table VI), but there was no increase in the boys' scores. If there were growth in imagery, with increase in mental age, one would expect to see a greater variation in the mean scores indicated in Table IV. The number of 105 cases, used for comparison of mental age with imagery score, was too small to warrant any conclusions.

The writer would like to see a comparison of the scores in I. 0. with mental imagery.

'hen one looks at the correlation of reading age with mental imagery, Table IX, one gets a different picture, a positive correlation of .53. The number of cases, 175, is small; however, Table X tells much the same story, showing the frequencies of the scores of mental imagery versus the different reading ability groups.

At present, in the majority of schools, pupils in each grade are divided into three ability reading groups for certain reading exercises and activities. Sometimes there are ten little groups; sometimes all come together in one group for

95

certain purposes and activities.

The character and kind of reading in the intermediate grades gradually shifts in objectives from learning to read to reading to learn for various purposes. The pupil discovers how to use books as tools of learning in broadening his pleasures, interests, tastes, and skills. Meanings, concepts, associations are developed, and enriched through his reading. From Tables IX and X, it appears that skill in intermediate grade reading and mental imagery do show correlation.

The power a child has in mental imagery seemingly affects his reading skill, or does it? Does his reading skill affect his imagery as well? It seems probable that successful reading in the middle grades may depend on imagery as one of the important factors.

The training in the various sense imageries has been> advocated by R. P. Halleck, who advises that "all the imageries of children be cultivated before the impressionable age is past"

From the total number of 470 children tested, 435 expressed real joy in reading. They liked to read. Only 35 said they really did not get any pleasure from reading. Table XI graphically tells the story in relation to their imagery scores. The mean score in imagery of those who liked to read is 35.5.

1/ Wilfrid Lay, op. cit., p. 54.

Do those 435 children enjoy reading because of their substantial imagery, or do they have a high score in imagery because they like to read? Perhaps both. It is very probable, however, that their enjoyment in reading comes largely from the imagery accompanying their reading.

They are successful in reading, probably. Interest and success are correlating factors, not only in school achievement but in life's endeavors as -well. Three hundred forty-four children composed the two highest ability groups in reading. They probably enjoyed reading, as there were but 35 who expressed a dislike for the subject.

If children, who make a high score in mental imagery, are the ones who like to read the best, it must be that these mental pictures, when used to help clarify thought and build correct percepts and concepts, are a desirable accompaniment to reading.

The scores made in imagery by the children who dislike reading, (Table XI), hold tremendous implications for teachers, educators, and publishers of chiidrens' books. Those 35 children who disliked reading have a mean score in imagery of 16.00. Their poor imagery very probably contributed in large measure to their dislike for reading.

One little girl, pupil no. 41, who scored a total

of 12 in imagery said, "No picture, because I don't remember the words after I say them. They go away. I see nothing, I hear nothing in a picture. You see, I read one word and have to study the next, so everything goes. Te have hard stories about the Pilgrims, so I get discouraged".

This little girl evidently had poor imagery, and was struggling with material not suited to her level of ability. Imagery possibly cannot accompany reading which is too difficult.

Another pupil, no. 37, whose total score in imagery was 13, remarked, "i don't like to read. I get a little picture, but it goes right away again. I forget awful easy. If teacher tells me something, I think I have it, but I forget right away. I don't know why".

If imagery contributes to enjoyment of reading, if imagery contributes to success in reading, if it can be developed through training, as those who have made investi- gations believe it can, then activities, exercises, and books for its development should be provided.

Children who read many books, probably enjoy reading, or they would not read a large number. Pupils, who do imich free reading, score high in imagery. From Table XIII it can be noted that the pupils, who read ten books and more, (a few of the 470

read 40 "books), had a mean score in imagery of 47,8, 13,2 points higher than the average mean score for the combined groups. Those -who read less than four books scored 24.0 in imagery.

A child who reads a large number of books, suited to his reading level, increases his eye span, speed, fluency, and improves his techniques, word mastery, comprehension, and vocabulary. In addition, wide reading broadens his tastes, his experiences, increases his pleasure, extends his interests, and leads to purposeful activities.

The writer believes that a child enjoys his reading because of the imagery accompanying it. There are other very important factors essential to interest. In this discussion, however, it is the part imagery plays which is of primary concern.

Interest and the amount of reading, therefore, seem to be correlating factors. If a child is to improve his imagery, he should read more books than he is reading, books which are suited to his level of ability, to his interests, and to his needs •

Associational reading is one of the important kinds of reading needed for success in the middle grades. It is the type of reading in which the reader thinks along with the author, making comparisons, generalizations, finding similarities and

exceptions to his viewpoint, and relating his ovm experiences to those of the author. This reading, while always important, is a special aid in social study courses.

Some children make few comparisons when reading. They have no ideas along with the author. They fail to link their experiences to what is being read.

Table XVI tells a very interesting story. It reveals the fact that those pupils, who had absolutely no association, while reading either selection, of either a book read, movie seen, place visited, or people known, have a mean score in imagery of 17.9. It is very possible that the ability to do associational reading depends upon imagery in large measure. Those who had one type of association, have a mean imagery score of 31.2. The pupils, who had more than one type of association, have a mean score in imagery of 43.5.

Associational reading ability is something which can be improved through training. Avis Harden found that, by preparing specific exercises designed to improve this ability, remarkable results could be observed in eight weeks 2z The writer believes that exercises designed for improving imagery would also improve associational reading.

1/ Avis i&rden, Associational Reading Abilities of the Seventh Grader, Unpublished ' . Ed. Thesis, Bo"ston~ University, 1941.

Let us compare the riean score in imagery of those who did not like to read, 16.00, with the mean score of those who had no association while reading either selection, 17,9. It can be seen there are many interrelations.

In the appendix, page 126, may be noted some of the types of associations the pupils made while reading the selections

It is very important that a pupil get a correct cental picture. False images mean misconceptions, wrong interpretations.

A child's previous experience helps to build ideas, meanings, and images. Horn says, '^Then the words or statements in the text are familiar to the reader and stand for ideas that he has previously evolved from his experience, the recall of

these ideas is relatively easy Sometimes, indeed, he

may not have the vaguest ideas of what the words themselves mean."

Ambiguous, confused concepts lead to error in interpretation. "Vagueness and errors in the background pertinent to any selection are certain to be reflected in the meanings that are obtained.

In the outdoor selection, presented to grade V pupils,

page 34, one reads that Teddy Bear, while walking upon a mountain,

fell through a thick fringe of blueberry bushes, and went rolling

"17 Ernest C. Horn, Ilethods of Instruction in the Social

Studies, Charles Scribner's Sons, Sew York, 1S37, p. 177.

2/ Loc. cit.

101

and clawing down the face of a steep rock. He fell thirty feet into a deep bowl, not more than forty feet across at the bottom.

Some of the conceptions and images of this deep bowl in the v/oods where Teddy Bear fell may be seen in the appendix, page 121. One third of the 144 grade V pupils tested had similar conceptions of a deep bowl in the woods. The passage gave description of the rocky sides, Teddy falling 30 feet, the bowl forty feet across at the bottom, but to one-third of the pupils a bowl could have but one meaning, a dish. Pupil no. 26 says, "The clearest part of this picture is the bear in the dish."

On page 120 of the appendix may be seen two diagrams of pupils who had a correct idea of the "deep bowl in the woods".

Betts reiterates the importance of experiential back- ground for forming correct visual pictures. "Children up to these ages 13 to 18 show few traces of any other kind of knowledge, but think mainly in visual pictures, their mental life being chiefly made up of imagination and remory of their personal experiences .

Dr. Durrell says associational types of reading "involve skills of a somewhat higher level than simple interpretation."^/ He suggests exercises for enriching imagery in silent reading as a

17 George H. Betts, op. cit., p. 85.

2/ Donald D. Durrell, Improvement of Basic Reading Abilities, op. cit., p. 244.

means of improving associational reading

There is no doubt in the writer's mind that imagery helps to build associations which in turn assist in recall and form a basis for learning and retention.

: abel Fernald decided that, "the presence or absence of associations between images was again and again — - the determining factor for the learning of a series

The importance of the correlation of imagery and associational recall cannot be too strongly stressed.

The type of reading, the kind of reading a child does depends largely on his imagery, (Note Table XVTl) .The children who prefer the Funnies more than any ot?ier kind of reading are children with a very low imagery score. Their imagery score is not low because they like the Funnies. Perhaps these children with poor imagery need these pictures and turn to them because of the visual aid given in helping to increase pleasure through imagery already provided for them.

However, children who liked adventure stories have the highest imagery scores . This type of reading provides much in the way of mental pictures through sound words, color words, motion, kinesthetic and emotional coloring.

1/ " Loc. cit .

2/ ISabel Fernald, op. cit., p. 138.

In these days of the radio, motion picture, records, visual aids, much is done in providing imagery for the child. There can be no doubt of the tremendous educational value of these learning aids.

However, the writer believes that if, by diagnosis, it is found that a child preferring comics and the Funnies has a low imagery score, much can be done to increase imagery through intelligent guidance.

If teachers and parents discover children whose preference in reading taste is the Funnies, they can help to improve their imagery by encouraging them to read fairy, history, true, mystery, and adventure stories. It cannot be done by taking away the comics and the Funnies. Such a restriction would be disastrous. The comics are here to stay.

Pertinent to this thought is the advice of Dr. Gray. "The stimulation of wide reading of books and selections should be chosen with special reference to the interests and the needs of children rather than the cultivation of appreciation of specific literary masterpieces selected largely in harmony with adult standards.

1/ William S. Gray, "Symposium", Policies and Practices in Reading, Reprinted from the Elementary English Review of November, December, 1942, and February, 1943, by national Council of Teachers of English, Chicago, Illinois, p. 12.

104

Among these 26 children, preferring the Funnies, no one had an individual imagery score above 44, although the range in imagery was from 0-74. The 13 individuals, who scored in the highest step-interval between 70 - 74, liked best adventure, mystery, true, and fairy stories. Not one of this top group in imagery preferred wild west, cowboy stories, or the Funnies.

In a study made by Dr. Gates, the elements of surprise or unexpectedness, liveliness or action, were those which ranked first in influencing interest in children's reading. Adventure and mystery stories abound in these elements.

Of the 26, who preferred the Funnies, 18 had not read more than 4 library books, (Table XIX) . Their poor imagery evidently did not contribute to enjoyment and pleasure in reading, although 20 of them said they liked to read. If they really liked to read, however, they would read more. Fourteen of these pupils had no association v/hatever in reading the passages given in the test. Of course, the number of pupils, 26, is too small to draw any conclusions. The data are simply presented for the interest they contain.

However, the findings do hold implications. It will not be solving the problem to place a ban on the Funnies. It will not increase these youngsters' imagery to decide they should have

1/ Arthur I. Gates, Interest and Ability in Reading, The ~~ I'acmillan Company, New York, 1931, p. 80.

no visual aids, or illustrations. That would indicate a misunder- standing of the best means to the end. Of the 470 children, 438 said they preferred stories with illustrations.

It would be exactly like saying, that because some children use the context to the exclusion of other means of attacking words, that teachers should not allow the pupils to use the context. It is not that they use the context too much, but that they use other clues too little. The implication is that these children have too little of other types of material, not that they have too many illustrations or visual aids.

There is little difference in the mean imagery score of those pupils who preferred a story as a motion picture, and those who indicated they liked better to listen to the same story over the radio. Table XIV shows a difference between the means of 2,6. In looking at the movies, the child is being given the aid of visual imagery in addition to auditory suggestions. Over the radio, through auditory aids, the child has to supply himself his own visual pictures. It appears that the child, who is able to create his own visual pictures, has slightly better imagery. The mean score of the pupils preferring the radio, 36.1, is 1.5 higher than the mean imagery score of the combined grades.

Seventy-eight percent of the pupils preferred the movies. The mean score of these pupils was slightly lower than

the mean imagery score of the combined grades. These pupils, preferring the movies, however, are close to the average in imagery.

The pupils, who indicated a preference in reading their own stories, have a substantially higher imagery score than those who prefer to hear some one read the stories to them. The difference between the means is 10,20.

I'any factors other than imagery, of course, influence such a difference. Some children read with too much difficulty in word recognition and comprehension, and at too slow a rate for enjoyment. Seventy-four percent, however, prefer to read their own stories. Their mean score in imagery of 39.2 indicates strong ability in different kinds of imagery.

It is possible that some children find difficulty in imagery without the auditory aid. Pupil, no. 21, said, "i have to say the words out loud in order for the thought to click. No picture unless I say the words".

This may have strong implications for those who have said there shall be no lip movement during silent reading. The serious effects of lip movements in successful silent reading are well known. However, it may be that a few children find imagery and meaning difficult without "saying the words". There may be some way of helping such pupils, if diagnosis reveals poor imagery.

The encouragement of much relatively easy and interesting

_

material would no doubt help not only to stimulate fluency, speed, and cultivate interest, but also to increase imagery as well.

Enjoyment of reading, the amount of reading, success in reading, the kind of stories liked, associations in reading, and reading one's own stories, all show substantial correlations with imagery scores*

108

Implications

For Measurement of Pupils

1. Early diagnosis of pupils' imagery by means of a test similar to the one used in this study is recommended. A scale for measurement of the degree of imagery can be constructed. However, an informal method of scoring may be adopted by classifying the pupils into five groups of imagery; high, good, average, below average, and poor.

2. A comparison of each pupil's imagery score (or rating,

if the marking system, high, good, average, below average, or poor is used) with his interest in reading, amount of free reading accomplished in a year, kind of stories liked best, and associational recall would be very useful for determining each pupil's needs.

3. Discovery of personality differences is suggested through analysis of responses to questions in the test, the introductory questions, and observation of kind of stories preferred. The shy and retiring pupil, the aggressive pupil, the social child, the discouraged pupil, and the optimistic pupil will be discovered.

100

For Teaching

1« The -writer believes that power in mental imagery, in relation to silent reading, would respond to training.

2. Exercises nay be developed for teaching pupils to observe and improve their own imagery, and keep a record of their own improvement,

3. Small group work can be initiated, according to the needs and interests of the pupils. Some pupils may need help in all kinds of imagery; some may need help chiefly in visual imagery.

Pupils -who prefer the Funnies, if their imagery score is low, can be grouped for special work in diagnosing and discussing imagery possibilities in selections. Development of taste for other kinds of stories, which would increase efficiency in imagery, can be made. Teachers must not condemn the Funnies, for that practice would defeat the object in view. Intelligent guidance is needed. Dr. Gates says, "l'.'any of the classics do not make an appeal to many children, especially the poorer readers. The popularity of the comics and of the modern adventure serials is obvious both in children's choices of reading materials and radio programs Damage is sometimes done by the

-

restrictive influence of the school on free and recreational reading .1/

4. Free reading of library books can be guided with a better understanding of suggesting books for pupils, who are poor in imagery.

Believing that the amount of free reading increases a pupil's imagery, the writer suggests that the classroom teacher innovate schemes, and plans which will stimulate the amount of free reading of library books on the level of ability of the child, and according to his interests •

Dr. Gates says, "Now that the picture newspapers and magazines, the radio, phonographs, and other sources of information are available, the incentives for continuing to read in adult life are less than they were a generation

ago We need a larger amount of lusty, challenging,

and satisfying content for our literary courses and free reading periods, especially for boys

5. Exercises can be initiated for promoting imagery in associational reading.

17 Arthur I. Gates, "Symposium", Policies and Practices in Reading, Reprinted from the Elementary "English Review of November, December, 1942, and February, 1943, by National Council of Teachers of English, Chicago, Illinois, p. 10.

2/ Loc cit.

6. Special training may be given to the boys who show- definitely lower ability in imagery than the girls. It would be interesting to observe whether or not this training would result in greater efficiency in reading ability.

7. A program, coordinating in a better way the promotion of imagery, the clarification of concepts, increasing a meaningful vocabulary, and studying semantic variations of words, is suggested. "One of the strongest new emphases in improving reading instruction should be in the field of semantics" ^/

8. Practice in observation of characteristics in writing in books which tend to promote imagery would help to increase the pupil's own imagery.

9. Practice may be given in increasing imagery in the pupil's own compositions, both oral and written.

10. Use of maps, charts, diagrams, and the making of

simple diagrams, in connection with silent reading, is suggested to help increase imagery.

1/ Nile. E. Smith, "Symposium", Policies and Practices in Reading, Reprinted from the Elementary English Review of November, December, 1942, and February, 1943, by National Council of Teachers of English, Chicago, Illinois, p. 26.

For Further Research

1. Repetition of this same experiment under better controlled conditions. By pairing the boys and girls in mental age, a better determination of the sex differences could be approximated.

2. Repetition of this same experiment showing the sex differences in every comparison, associational recall, liking to read, story preferences, and amount of reading .

3. Development of a standardized test for diagnosing mental imagery in silent reading.

4. Development of improved objective scoring standards.

5. Creation of exercises for increasing imagery followed by tests to determine the effect of training in mental imagery.

6. Discovery of the earliest and most favorable time for training in mental imagery.

7. Comparison of the I. Q. quotients with mental imagery*

8. An analysis of speed in reading with degrees of ability in imagery.

9. Controlled experiment to oompare the similarities and differences in adult's and children's imagery in relation to their silent reading.

10. An experiment, extending over several years, to

increase children's power of imagery. Tests, given at intervals, to determine whether or not the training was permanent. Observation and testing of the same subjects in Junior High School, Senior High School, and later as adults.

For Authors and Publishers of Children's Books

1. A series of books, which have as their chief object, development of power in mental imagery in silent reading. A series of workbooks with practice exercises to increase imagery, and tests at intervals which will serve to show pupil and teacher the improvement .

2. Adventure stories and mystery stories, with their elements of surprise, plot, and liveliness, which give such vivid appeal to all the sense perceptions, particularly visual, auditory, and kinesthetic,

are the choice of the pupils who have higher scores in imagery than pupils preferring other kinds of stories. This should suggest a series of books for pupils in grades four, five, and six.

CHAPTER VI SUI IARY AIID COKCIDSIONS

CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A scale -was constructed for measuring the mental imagery of the 470 pupils who were subjects in this study. It revealed the -wide range of imagery present in the silent reading of pupils in grades four, five, and six.

The data -were analyzed to discover some of the specific factors that might show positive, negative, or no correlation with a high or low degree of mental imagery present in silent reading.

The findings are as follows :

1. No significant differences in mental imagery are found in grades four, five, and six.

2. The girls in all three grades, however, have higher scores in imagery than the boys.

3. The mental age of a pupil shows no correlation with scores in mental imagery.

4. The reading age of a pupil shows a fair correlation with the degree of imagery present in silent reading.

5. Grouping of pupils, according to ability in reading, correlates with ability in imagery.

115

6. Interest in reading shows a very decided correlation -with the degree of imagery. Those who do not like to read have corres- pondingly low scores in imagery.

7. The amount of free library reading likewise indicates a very definite correlation with the degree of imagery. Those who read many books have keen imagery; those who read few books have poor imagery.

8. The pupils, who oref erred to read their own stories, have very much more power in imagery than those who prefer to hear stories read.

9. Those pupils, who have ability in associational recall have superior mental imagery* The pupils, who had no association with selections read, show very poor scores in imagery.

10. Very little difference in imagery rating is

shown by those pupils who prefer a story in the "movies" and those who prefer a story on the "radio". Both groups have average scores in imagery. Those who like the radio best are slightly superior in imagery.

116

11. The pupils, -who liked adventure and mystery- stories best, have the highest imagery scores. Those vrho liked the Funnies best, have the lowest imagery score.

12. A fair positive correlation between the indoor and outdoor selection indicates that pupils can develop comparable mental images from different types of selections, such as were used in this study.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

On pages 118 - 122 may be noted reproductions of diagrams made by pupils in grades four, five, and six. They are included as a matter of interest.

The diagrams do not indicate the pupils1 ability in mental imagery. Some pupils who were high in imagery made a poor diagram; others with high imagery made an excellent diagram indicating good concepts. However, those who were very poor in imagery, in general, had a correspondingly poor diagram. They, of course, had no image from which to make a sketch. Some of the imagery from the pupils' test papers are indicated beside the diagrams. Lack of space, however, prevented a complete report.

The sketches on page 121 are of interest. They are exact reproductions of grade V pupils' diagrams showing the bowl in the woods where Teddy Bear landed. (See page 34 for the selection} One third of the fifth grade pupils had similar ideas of a deep bowl in the woods. On page 120 may be seen typical examples of diagrams of pupils who had a good concept of a bowl in the woods.

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On the next page are reported, verbatim, individual pupil responses which are of interest and hold implications for teachers and educators. They are shown in relation to the mental imagery score. Note especially remarks of the following pupils: no. 21, no. 244, no. 37, and no. 41.

124

INDIVIDUAL HJPIL RESPONSES

Pupil Imagery Responses No. Score responses

12 6 "Can't see a thing in this indoor picture. The other

picture was hazy gray".

10 0 "No colors do I see unless the story says so".

5 13 "i don't get pictures when I am reading except once

in a while and they are not clear".

7 7 "Sometimes I get a picture, sometimes none".

21 8 "I have to say the words out loud in order for the

thought to click. No picture unless I say the words" •

26 21 "The clearest part of this picture is the bear in

the dish".

244 18 "I hear the words in the story, but I see very

little picture".

216 37 "Sometimes I get colors, sometimes I don't".

37 13 "I don't like to read. I get a little picture but

it goes right away again. It doesn't stay. I forget awful easy. If teacher tells me something, I think I have it, but I forget right away. I don't know why".

39 10 "i just get something black - no picture".

41 12 "No picture because I don't remember the words

after I say them. They go away. I see nothing. I hear nothing. You see, I read one word and I have to study the next, so everything goes. We have hard stories about the Pilgrims and I get discouraged" .

68 37 "i liice best murder stories like the Ellery Queen".

On pages 126 - 127 may be observed a few responses, reported verbatim, showing the different types of associations the pupils had while reading the selections. Table XVI indicates the relation of associational recall to imagery score.

"Sun Valley Serenade" was the only moving picture reported by name. Several pupils said the selection reminded them of a movie but did not recall the name.

Very many books were reported, a few of which are included in the responses. It would appear that when children read their own stories the imagery produces better associations than when the imagery is already provided for them in a movie. Perhaps the imagery is more permanent. Table XV shows the mental imagery of pupils who preferred to read their own stories in relation to the imagery of those who preferred to hear stories read.

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