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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


YOUNGKEN 


Dryopteris marginalis, one of the ferns whose rhizome and stipes constitute 
the drug, Aspidium. 


( Frontispiece ) 


PHARMACEUTICAL 

BOTANY 


I 


BY 


HEBER. W. YOUNGKEN, Ph.G., A.M., M. S., Ph.D. 


HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY IN THE PHILADELPHIA 
COLLEGE OF PHARMACY; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL 
ASSOCIATION, ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADEL- 
PHIA, BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF , AMERICA, BOTANICAL 
SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AMERICAN ASSO- 
CIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF 
SCIENCE, ETC. 


SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 


WITH 195 ILI nsTBATinN5 


Li 


PHILADELPHIA 

P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO. 


1012 WALNUT STREET 

' 


3 H 1 — 


Copyright, 1918, by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. 


“The use in this volume of certain portions of the text of the United 
States Pharmacopoeia is by virtue of permission received from the Board 
of Trustees of the United States Pharmacopoeial Convention. The said 
Board of Trustees is not responsible for any inaccuracy of quotation nor for 
any errors in the statement of quantities or percentage strengths.” 


T II K MAPLE PKESS TO K K I* A 


PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 


The appearance of the United States Pharmacopoeia IX and the 
National Formulary IV, with the many changes in the lists and 
definitions of officially recognized vegetable drugs made it necessary 
to revise the former edition of this work. 

In the course of revision, the writer has taken cognizance of the 
growing importance of Botany in the curricula of pharmaceutical 
institutions and has accordingly expanded upon the subject matter 
of the former text. 

With the adoption for the first time by the new United States 
Pharmacopoeia of pharmacognic standards for numerous drugs, 
Pharmacognosy has risen to the forefront in this country as a science. 
While its proper comprehension requires laboratory instruction in 
chemistry, physics, and crystallography as well as botany, neverthe- 
less a rather extended foundation in structural botany stands out 
preeminently as the most needed requirement. 

The work has been for the most part remodeled. Chapter I deals 
with Fundamental Considerations. Chapter II is devoted to the 
life history of the Male Fern, a median type of plant, the considera- 
tion of which, after the students have received fundamental practice 
in the use of the microscope, the writer has found commendable, for 
it not only gives the beginner a working knowledge of structures and 
functions, the homologies and analogies of which will be met in the 
later study of forms of higher and lower domain, but holds their 
interest on account of its economic importance. 

The life history of a type of Gymnosperm, White Pine, is next 
taken up in Chapter III. Chapter IV considers the life history of an 
Angiosperm as well as codrdinates the resemblances and differences 
between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Chapters V, VI and 
VII are devoted respectively to Vegetable Cytology, Plant Tissues 
and Plant Organs and Organisms. Among the many additions to 
the topics included in these might be mentioned a treatise on Cell 
Formation and Reproduction including Indirect Nuclear Division, 


VI 


PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 


twenty pages on Non-Protoplasmic Cell Contents, the considera- 
tion of Woods, Root Tubercles, the gross structure and histology of 
different types of leaves, broad histologic differences between Mono- 
cotvl and Dicotyl leaves, the histology of floral parts and the his- 
tology of types of fruits and seeds. Chapter VIII on Taxonomy 
has been increased by the addition of 144 pages. Several new fami- 
lies of drug-yielding plants have been added and the treatment of 
family characteristics has in the majority of instances been broad- 
ened. The habitats of drug-yielding plants have been added. In 
that portion of the tables dealing with the names of official drugs, 
those official in the National Formulary have been so designated by 
the abbreviation N. F., to distinguish them from others that may 
occur in the same portion of the table and which are official in the 
Pharmacopoeia. 

In keeping with the increased size of the book, many new illus- 
trations have been introduced. A number of these are original draw- 
ings, photographs and photomicrographs. To the authors of other 
works from which cuts were borrowed, the writer’s thanks are due. 

The writer in conclusion desires to thank Dr. John M. Macfarlane, 
head of the Botanical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, 
for valuable suggestions during the preparation of portions of the 
text. 


H. W. Y. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 


The aim has been to eliminate from this book all those topics that 
are of minor importance to the student and practitioner of Phar- 
macy. As a pharmacist and teacher, the writer feels that the botan- 
ical preparation for Pharmacognosy and Materia Medica, in those 
colleges where Botany is given for one year, should include mainly 
the structural and systematic aspects of the science. In the Medico- 
Chirurgical College, of Philadelphia, Botany is taught the first year, 
extending over a period of 155 hours. The author has introduced in 
this concise volume the important subject matter of his lectures given 
to first year students, and has omitted laboratory directions for the 
obvious reason that fixed subjects for laboratory study are unneces- 
sary. It is not a book on Pharmacognosy, however, since it does not 
describe how one drug differs from another of the same group in all 
of its details. 

The work is included in two parts. Part I is largely devoted to the 
morphology (gross and minute) and, to a less extent, the physiology 
of the Angiosperms. Part II deals with the taxonomy of plants, 
mainly but not wholly of medicinal value, together with the parts 
used and the names of the official and non-official drugs obtained 
from these. 

The author does not claim sole originality for the facts presented, 
but has consulted many sources of information, mention of which will 
be found in the bibliography of the text. 

Acknowledgment is here rnade to his esteemed friends, Dr. Fran- 
cis E. Stewart of the Medico-Chirurgical College and Dr. John M. 
Macfarlane of the University of Pennsylvania, for valuable assis- 
tance in the reading of the proofs and preparation of the index. 

H. W. Y. 


Philadelphia. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 


Fundamental Considerations 
DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY.— i. Morphology 

Pages 


(Gross Anatomy, Histology, Cytology). 2. Physiology. 3. 
Taxonomy or Systematic Botany. 4. Ecology. 5. Phyto- 
pathology. 6. Phytogeography. 7. Phytopalaeontology. 8. 
Etiology. 9. Economic Botany and its subdivisions 1-2 

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.— Natural System: species; 

genus; family; order; class; division; variety; race; hybrid 2-3 

OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS 3-4 

THE MICROSCOPE. — Definition. The simple microscope. The com- 
pound microscope: its construction and use. Rules for the 
care of the microscope 4-8 

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING PERMANENT MOUNTS.— The 
mounting medium; Staining. Method for the Preparation of a 
Canada Balsam Mount. Method for the Staining and Mount- 
ing of Material in Paraffine Ribbons affixed to slide. Making 


sections. Kinds of sections . 8-1 1 

MICROMETRY. — Unit of microscopical measurement. Standardi- 
zation of the Ocular Micrometer 11-12 


CHAPTER II 

Life History of the Male Fern 

HISTORY OF THE SPOROPHYTE OR ASEXUAL GENERATION. 
— Gross structure of stem. Histology of mature stem. His- 
tology of growing apex. Histology of mature root. Histology 
of root apex. Continuity of crude sap flow. Histology of stipe. 
Histology of lamina. Comparative physiology of root, stem 


IX 


X 


CONTENTS 


and leaf. Gross structure and histology of the sori and sporan 
gia. Rupture of sporangium and spore dissemination. HIS 
TORY OF THE GAMETOPHYTE OR SEXUAL GENERA 
TION. — Origin of new sporophyte or diploid plant from fer 
tilized egg. Growth of seedling into mature sporophyte 
Alternation of generations 

CHAPTER III 

Life History of a Gymnosperm (Pinus Strobus) 

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHITE PINE TREE (SPOROPHYTE).— 
Staminate cones. Carpellate cones. DESCRIPTION OF 
THE GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION.— The Male Game- 
tophyte. The Female Gametophyte. Fertilization. Seed 
Formation and Distribution. GERMINATION OF THE 
SEED 24-31 

CHAPTER IV 

Life History of an Angiosperm 

DESCRIPTION OF THE DOG’S TOOTH VIOLET.— Development 
of Female Gametophyte. Pollination and Fertilization. 
Maturation of the Pollen Grain and formation of the Male 
Gametophyte. Ripening of the Ovule to form the Seed and 
of the Ovary to form the Fruit. Germination of the Seed and 


development of the Mature Sporophyte 32-36 

RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIO- 

SPERMS 36 

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS 

AND ANGIOSPERMS 36-37 

CHAPTER V 

Vegetable Cytology 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY.— Definition. The Plant Cell as the 

Fundamental Unit. A typical plant Cell 38-39 

PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES.— Structure. Metabolism. 

Reproduction 39 ~ 4 ° 

PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS. — Cytoplasm; nucleus; nucleolus; 

plastids (leucoplastids. chloroplastids, chromoplastids) . . . 40-41 


Pages 


13-23 


CONTENTS 


XI 


Pages 

CELL FORMATION AND REPRODUCTION.— Asexual and sexual 
cells. Reproduction defined. Asexual Reproduction: Fission; 
Gemmation; Free Cell Formation; Rejuvenescence. Sexual 


Reproduction: Conjugation and Fertilization 41-43 

INDIRECT NUCLEAR DIVISION 43~45 


NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS.— Sugars. Starch. Inulin. 

Hesperidin. Strophanthin. Salicin. Saponin. Coniferin. Digi- 
toxin. Characteristics of Glucosides. Alkaloids and their pro- 
perties. The alkaloids, Strychnine, Veratrine, Nicotine, 
Caffeine, Cocaine, Aconitine, Colchicine. Gluco-alkaloids. 
Asparagine. Calcium Oxalate. Cystoliths. Silica. Tannins. 
Proteins. Aleurone Grains. Mucilages and Gums. Fixed Oils 
and Fats. Volatile Oils. Resins. Oleoresins. Gum Resins. 
Balsams. Pigments. Latex. Enzymes. Classification of 


Enzymes 45-64 

CELL WALLS. — Their formation and composition. Growth in area and 
thickness. Various kinds of cell walls and behavior of each to 
micro-chemic reagents 64-66 

CHAPTER VI 


Plant Tissues 

PLANT TISSUES. — Tissue defined. The Tissues of Spermatophytes 


and Pteridophytes: Generative Tissues. List of Tissues . . . 67-68 

MERISTEM. — Definition. Primary and secondary meristems; their 

distribution 68 

PARENCHYMA. — Definition; ordinary parenchyma; assimilation 
parenchyma; conducting parenchyma; reserve parenchyma; 
their distribution and function 69 

COLLENCHYMA. — Definition, function and distribution 70 

SCLERENCHYMA. — Definition; stone cells; sclerenchyma fibers, wood 

fibers; bast fibers; their distribution 70-71 

EPIDERMIS. — Definition; transpiration and water stomata; epidermal 

papillae; trichomes; scales; their distribution and functions . . 71-75 

ENDODERMIS. — Definition, distribution and functions 75 

CORK. — Definition; its derivation, function and distribution 75 

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE. — The structure, origin, distribution of latex 

cells, laticiferous vessels and secretory cells. Latex 75—7 7 

SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM) TISSUE— Definition; distri- 
bution; function 77 — 78 


XII 


CONTENTS 


Pages 

TRACHEARY TISSUE.— Tracheae: Definition, function and classifica- 
tion; Tracheids: Definition and function 78-80 

MEDULLARY RAYS. — Primary and Secondary; their distribution and 

functions 81 

FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. — Definition of the various types; 

the distribution of each type; Xylem and Phloem 81-8,} 

SECRETION SACS. — Definition and distribution 83 

INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES. — Definition ; schizogenous and lysi- 

genous air spaces; their relative size 83 

SECRETION RESERVOIRS. — Definition; structure; internal glands; 

secretion canals 84 

CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION. . 84 

CHAPTER VII 

Plant Organs and Organisms 

PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS.— Organ and organism defined. 

Vegetative Organs: Roots, stems and leaves. Reproductive 
Organs: Flower, fruit and seed. Embryo and its parts; function 
of the cotyledon 85 

THE ROOT. — Definition; functions; root hairs; root cap; generative 

tissues; differences between root and stem ' 85-87 

CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS AS TO FORM— Primary root; tap 
root; secondary roots; fibrous and fleshy roots; anomalous 
roots; adventitious roots; epiphytic roots; haustoria 87-88 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO DURATION 

OF ROOT. — Annual; Biennial; Perennial 88 

ROOT HISTOLOGY. — A. Monocotyledons. B. Dicotyledons; Histology 
and Development of the California Privet root; Abnormal 
structure of Dicotyl roots; Histology of a Dicotyl Tuberous 
Root, Aconitum 88-93 

ROOT TUBERCLES. — -Definition; occurrence on roots of Leguminosae, 

Myricaceae, etc.; their etiology 93-96 

THE BUD. — Definition; plumule, scaly buds, naked buds; Classification 
of Buds According to Position on Stem: terminal bud; 
axillary or lateral bud ; adventitious bud ; accessory bud. Classi- 
fication of Buds According to Development: leaf bud; flower 
bud and mixed bud. Classification of Buds According to 
their Arrangement on the Stem: alternate; opposite; whorled . 96-97 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


Pages 

THE STEM. — Definition; direction of growth; functions; size; nodes and 
internodes; stem elongation; duration of stems; stem modifi- 
cations; above ground stems; herb and tree defined; under- 
ground stems; exogenous and endogenous stems 97-101 

STEM HISTOLOGY/ — Annual Dicotyl; Perennial Dicotyl; Exceptional 
Types of Dicotyl Stems; Lenticels and Their Formation; 

Annual Thickening of Stems; Method of formation; “Annual 
. Ring.” Bark: Definition; zones; Periderm; Phelloderm; 
Histology of Cascara Sagrada bark. Wood: alburnum; dura- 
men; microscopic characteristics of Angiospermous and Gym- 
nospermous woods; Histology of Typical Herbaceous Mono- 


cotyl Stems; Histology of Typical Woody Monocotyl Stem . . 101-115 

THE LEAF. — Definition; leaf functions: photosynthesis; assimilation; 

respiration; transpiration 116 


TYPES OF LEAVES DEVELOPED IN ANGIOSPERMS— Cotyle- 
dons; Scale leaves; Foliage leaves; Bract leaves: bracts and 
bracteoles; Sepals; Petals; Microsporophylls; Megasporophyllsn6-ii7 

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES.— Primordial leaf. Its 

formation 117 

PHYLLOTAXY. — Definition; spiral law of leaf arrangement; alternate; 

opposite, decussate; whorled; fascicled; leaf rank 117-118 

VERNATION. — Definition; inflexed or reclinate; conduplicate; con- 
volute; circinate; plicate; involute; revolute 118-119 

THE COMPLETE LEAF. — Its parts; sessile; petiolate; exstipulate; 

stipulate 1 19-120 

LEAF VENATION. — Furchate; parallel; reticulate; pinni- veined; 

palmately veined; anastomosing veins 120 

LEAF INSERTION. — Definition; radical; cauline; ramal; perfoliate; 

amplexicaul; connate-perfoliate; equitant 120-122 

FORMS OF LEAVES.- — Simple and Compound. ( a ) General Outline: 

ovate; linear; lanceolate; elliptical; oblong; inequilateral; or- 
bicular; peltate; filiform; oblanceolate; cuneate; spatulate; ensi- 
form; acerose; deltoid. ( b ) Apex: acute; acuminate; obtuse; 
truncate; mucronate; cuspidate; aristate; emarginate; retuse; 
obcordate. (c) Base: cordate; reniform; hastate; auriculate; 
sagittate. ( d ) Margin: entire, serrate; dentate; crenate; 
repand; sinuate; incised; runcinate; lobed; cleft; parted; divided. 


Forms of Compound Leaves 122-127 

LEAF TEXTURE. — Membranous; succulent; coriaceous 127 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


Pages 

LEAF COLOR. — Variations in color 127 

LEAF SURFACE. — Glabrous; glaucous; pellucid-punctate; scabrous; 

pubescent; villose; sericious; hispid; tomentose; spinose; rugose; 
verrucose 127 

DURATION OF LEAVES. — Persistent or evergreen; deciduous; cadu- 
cous; fugacious 127 

GROS S STRUCTURE AND HISTOLOGY OF THE LEAF PETIOLE. 

— In Monocotyledons. In Dicotyledons. Pulvinus. Periclad- 
ium 127-129 

STIPULES. — Definition; lateral; free-lateral; lateral-adnate; lateral- 
connate; lateral interpetiolar. Axillary; ochrea. Modified 
Stipules 1 29-130 


THE LAMINA. — Definition. Mode of Development of the Lamina 
of Leaves: Dorsoventral; convergent; centric; bifacial; reversed; 
ob-dorsoventral. A. Dorsoventral: (a) Dorsoventral Umbro- 
phytic; ( b ) Dorsoventral Mesophytic; (c) Dorsoventral Xero- 
phytic; (d) Dorsoventral Hydrophytic. Gross Structure and 
Histology of Different Types of Dorsoventral Leaf Blades. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the following types: B. 
Convergent; C. Centric; D. Bifacial 130-^34 

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF STOMATA 134-136 

HISTOLOGIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEAVES OF DICOTY- 
LEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS 136 

INFLORESCENCE. — Definition; Parts of Inflorescences; Determinate; 

Indeterminate; Mixed Forms of Indeterminate and Determi- 
nate Inflorescences 136-140 

PR.EFLORATION.- — Convolute; involute; revolute; plicate; imbricate; 

valvate; vexillary; contorted 140-141 

THE FLOWER. — Definition; floral parts; essential organs; complete; 

perfect; hermaphrodite; regular; symmetrical; imperfect; 
double; staminate; pistillate; neutral; connation; adnation . .141-143 

THE RECEPTACLE, TORUS OR THALAMUS.— Definition; varia- 
tions in structure; anthophore; gonophore; gynophore; carpo- 
phore 143 

THE PERIGONE. — Definition; dichlamydeous; monochlamydeous . . 143 

THE CALYX. — Definition; parts; physical characteristics; connation; 

kinds and forms; persistence; adnation; sepaline spurs; sepaline 
stipules; sepaline position 143-T45 


CONTENTS 


XV 


Pages 

THE COROLLA. — Definition; parts; physical characteristics; func- 
tions. Forms of the Corolla and Perianth 145-147 

THE ANDRCECIUM OR STAMEN SYSTEM.— Definition; parts; 

terms denoting number of stamens in flower; insertion of sta- 
mens; proportions of stamens; connation of stamens; stamen 
color. Gross Structure and Histology of the Filament. Gross 
Structure and Histology of the Anther. Anther Dehiscence. 
Development of the Anther. Attachment of Anther. 

Pollen: description; forms 147-154 

THE GYNCECIUM OR PISTIL SYSTEM.— Definition; Gymno- 
spermous and Angiospermous; parts; the pistil a modified leaf; 
carpel; dehiscence; apocarpous and syncarpous pistils; terms 
denoting the number of carpels entering into the formation of 
the pistil; compound pistils; ovules or megasori as trans- 
formed buds; position of ovules in ovary; Gymnospermous 
and Angiospermous ovules; structure of Angiospermous ovule; 


shape of ovule 154-156 

THE PLACENTA. — Definition; types of placenta arrangement. . . . 156 

THE STYLE. — Definition; style-arms; relation to carpels forming the 

gynoecium; variations from typical stylar development . . .156-157 

THE STIGMA. — Definition; forms in wind- and animal-pollinated flow- 
ers; stigmatic papillae 157-158 

POLLINATION. — Definition; Close and Cross Pollination; terms 

applied to plants pollinated by various agencies 158 

MATURATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN AND FORMATION OF 

MALE GAMETOPHYTE 158-159 

MATURATION OF THE EMBRYO SAC AND FORMATION OF 

THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE ico 


FERTILIZATION IN ANGIOSPERMS. — Process; formation of 
embryo and endosperm 

THE FRUIT. — Definition; modifications 160 

FRUIT STRUCTURE. — Pericarp; pseudocarp; anthocarp; epicarp; 

mesocarp; endocarp; sarcocarp; putamen; sutures; valves; 
dehiscence r 60-1 61 

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. — Simple; Aggregate; Multiple; dry 
dehiscent; dry indehiscent; fleshy indehiscent. Forms of 
Simple Fruits: capsular; schizocarpic; achenial; baccate; drup- 
aceous. Etaerio. Forms of Multiple Fruits: strobile or cone; 
sorosis; syconium; galbalus 161-166 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


Pages 

HISTOLOGY OF A CAPSULE, VANILLA 166 

HISTOLOGY OF A MERICARP, FCENICULUM 167-168 

THE SEED. — Definition; structure; functions; appendages . . : . .168-169 

MODE OF FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALBUMEN. 

— Perisperraic; endospermic; perispermic and endospermic; 
exalbuminous and albuminous seeds 169-170 

A MONOCOTYL SEED. — Its gross structure and histology 170-171 

A MONOCOTYL SEEDLING. — Germination and structure 1 71-172 

A DICOTYL SEED. — Its gross structure and histology 1 72-1 73 

CHAPTER VIII 

Taxonomy 


THALLOPHYTA. — Definition. Characters of the Protophyta, Myxo- 
mycetes, Algae, Fungi and Lichenes. The Mounting and 
Staining of Bacteria. Life histories of representative types of 
Thallophytes. Plants of the group yielding drugs and economic 
products 174-230 

BRYOPHYTA. — Definition. Characters of the Hepaticae and Musci. 

Life history of a typical true moss 231-236 

PTERIDOPHYTA. — Definition. Characters of the Lycopodineae, 
Equisetineae and Filicineae. Life history of a typical fern. 

Plants of the group yielding official drugs 236-241 


SPERMATOPHYTA (PHANEROGAMIA).— Definition. Charac- 

teristics of the Gymnosperms and of the Order and Family 
yielding important drugs and economic products. Table of 
official and unofficial drugs yielded by Gymnosperms including 
part of plants used, botanical origins and habitats. Character- 
istics of the Angiosperms and of the classes and families yield- 
ing drugs. Tables of official and unofficial drugs with the 
names of the plants, parts constituting the drugs and habitats . 241-355 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 356 


INDEX 


357 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


CHAPTER I 

[FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 
[Botany is the Science which Treats of Plants 
DEPARTMENTS OF BOTANICAL INQUIRY 

1. Morphology treats of the parts, or structures of plants. It is 
divided into: 

(a) Macromorphology or Gross Anatomy which deals with the ex- 
ternal characters of plants or their parts; ( b ) Micromorphology or 
Histology which considers the minute or microscopical structure of 
plants and plant tissues; and (c) Cytology which treats of plant cells 
and their contents. 

2. Physiology deals with the study of the life processes or func- 
tions of plants. It explains how the various parts of plants perform 
their work of growth, reproduction, and the preparation of food for 
the support of animal life from substances not adapted to that use. 

3. Taxonomy or Systematic Botany considers the classification or 
arrangement of plants in groups or ranks in accordance with their 
relationships to one another. 

4. Ecology treats of plants and their parts in relation to their 
environment. 

5. Phytopathology treats of diseases of plants. 

6. Phytogeography or Plant Geography treats of the distribution 
of plants upon the earth. The center of distribution for each species 
of plant is the habitat or the original source from which it spreads, 
often over widely distant regions. When plants grow in their 
native countries they are said to be indigenous to those regions. 


2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


When they grow in a locality other than their original home they 
are said to be naturalized. 

7. Phytopalaeontology or Geological Botany treats of plants of 
former ages of the earth’s history traceable in their fossil remains. 

8. Etiology is the study of the causes of various phenomena ex- 
hibited by plants. 

9. Economic or Applied Botany deals with the science from a prac- 
tical standpoint, showing the special adaptation of the vegetable 
kingdom to the needs of everyday life. It comprises a number of 
subdivisions, viz.: Agricultural Botany, Horticulture, Forestry, 
Plant Breeding, - and Pharmaceutical Botany. Pharmaceutical 
Botany considers plants or their parts with reference to their use 
as drugs. It interlocks very closely with other departments of 
botanical science. 

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 

The classification of plants is an attempt to express the exact 
kinship which is believed to exist among them. By grouping to- 
gether those plants which are in some respects similar and combining 
these groups with others, it is possible to form something like an 
orderly system of classification. Such a system based upon natural 
resemblances is called a natural system. In a natural system of 
classification every individual plant belongs to a species, every species 
to a genus, every genus to a family, every family to an order, every 
order to a class, every class to a division. In many instances species 
may be subdivided into varieties or races. The crossing of two 
varieties or species, rarely of two genera, gives rise to a hybrid. 
Thus, the species Papaver somniferum which yields the opium of the 
Pharmacopoeia belongs to the genus Papaver, being placed in this 
genus with other species wh'ch have one or more essential character- 
istics in common. The genera Papaver, Sanguinaria and Cheli- 
donium, while differing from each other in certain essential respects 
nevertheless agree in other particulars such as having latex, perfect 
flowers, capsular fruits, etc., and so are placed in the Papaveracece 
family. The Papaveracece family and the Fumariacece family are 
closely allied, the latter only differing fiom the former in having 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


3 


irregular petals, usually diadelphous stamens and non-oily albumen 
and so both of these families are placed in the order Papaverales. 
The orders Papaverales, Geraniales, Sapindales , Rhamnales , etc., are 
related by a common structure namely, two seed leaves or cotyledons 
and so are grouped together under the class Dicotyledonece. The 
Dicotyledonece differ from the Monocotyledonece in that the latter 
group possess but one cotyledon; but both classes agree in having 
covered ovules and seeds, and so are placed in the subdivision 
Angiospernm. The Angiospermce differ from the Gymnos per nice in 
that the latter possess naked ovules and seeds but both of these 
subdivisions agree in producing real flowers and seeds. For these 
reasons they are placed in the division Spermatophyta of the Vege- 
table Kingdom. 


OUTLINE OF PLANT GROUPS 


I. Thallophyta 


4. Fungi 


3. Alga; 


2. Myxomycetes 


1. Protophyta 


Bacteria 

Cyanophycea? 

Acrasiales 

Phytomyxales 

Myxogastrales 

Chlorophycese 

Phaeophyceae 

Rhodophyceae 

Phycomycetes 

Ascomycetes 

Basidiomvcetes 

Fungi Imperfecti 

Crustaceous 


5. Lichenes 


Marchantiales 


II. Bryophyta 


1. Hepaticae Jungermanniales 

. Anthocerotales 


2. Musci 


4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


III. Pteridophyta 


IV. Spermatophyta 


1. Lycopodineae 

2. Equisetineae 

3. Filicineae 

1. Gymnospermae 

2. Angiospermae 


f Lycopodiales 
Selaginalles 
1 Isoetales 
{ Equisetales 
j Ophioglossales 
1 Filicales 
Cycadales 
Ginkgoales 
Coniferales 
Gnetales 

J Monocotyledoneae 
1 Dicotyledoneae 


THE MICROSCOPE 


A microscope is an optical instrument, consisting of a lens, or 
combination of lenses, for making an enlarged image of an object 
which is too minute to be viewed by the naked eye. 

Microscopes are of two kinds, viz.: simple and compound. 


THE SIMPLE MICROSCOPE 

This consists simply of a convex lens or several combined into a 
system and mounted in a suitable stand. A good example of a 
simple microscope is a reading glass. 

THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 

A. Its Construction: 

The principal parts of a compound microscope are: 

r. The base, generally horseshoe shaped, which rests on the table. 

2. The pillar, an upright bar, which is attached to the base below 
and supports the rest of the instrument. 

3. The stage, a horizontal shelf upon which is placed the prepara- 
tion or slide to be examined. The stage is perforated in the center 
for transmitting light reflected up by the mirror. On the stage are 
two clips for holding the glass slide. 

4. The mirror, situated below the stage, by which the light is 
reflected upward through the opening in the stage. 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


5 


Draw-tube 


Horse-shoe base 


Fig. i. — I llustrating the parts of a compound microscope. 


5. The diaphragm, inserted in the opening of the stage or attached 
to its lower face, and used to regulate the amount of light reflected 
by the mirror. 


Ocular 


Prism washer 


Inclination joint 


Pillar 


Body tube 


Nosepiece 


Rack and 
pinion coarse 
adjustment 


Micrometer head 
of fine adjustment 

Arm 


Fine adjustment 

pillar 

Clips 


Objectives] 
Stage ' 


Upper iris diaphragm 
substage ring 

Condenser mounting 
lower iris diaphragm 


Condenser focusing screw 
Mirror — 

Mirror fork 

Mirror bar 


6. The body tube, a cylinder which holds the draw tube and lenses 
and moves up and down perpendicularly above the opening in the 
stage. The tube is raised or lowered either by sliding it back and 
forth with a twisting movement or by a rack and pinion mechanism. 
The latter is called the coarse adjustment. 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


7. The fine adjustment, a micrometer screw back of the tube, 
which, on being turned, produces a very small motion of the entire 
framework which holds the body tube. 

8. The oculars or eyepieces which slip into the upper end of the 
draw tube. Each of these consists of two plano-convex lenses, the 
lower one being the larger and known as the field lens because it 
increases the field of vision. The upper or smaller lens is called the 
eye lens. It magnifies the image formed by the objective. Midway 
between the field and eye lens is a perforated diaphragm, the object 
of which is to cut out edge rays from the image. 

According to the system adopted by the maker, oculars are desig- 
nated by numbers, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., or by figures which represent 
focal lengths. 

9. The objectives, which screw into the bottom of the body tube 

or nose piece. They consist of a system of two, three or four lenses, 
some of which are simple, others compounded of a convex crown 
lens and a concave flint lens. Objectives like oculars are usually 
designated by numbers or by figures, as etc., or in milli- 

meters, which represent focal lengths. 

The smaller the number or fraction representing the focal length 
of an objective, the greater is its magnifying power. 

Objectives are either dry lenses or itnmersion lenses. If an air 
space be present between the objective and the object, the lens is 
called a dry one; if a liquid is present between the objective and the 
object, the lens is called an immersion lens. If this liquid be oil 
the objective is called an oil immersion objective; if water, a water 
immersion objective. 

Some microscopes are fitted up with a nose piece, capable of carry- 
ing two or three objectives, which may be revolved into place at the 
lower end of the body tube. Others have a condenser which is 
employed to concentrate the light upon the object examined. 

B. Its Use: 

1. Place the microscope on the table with the pillar nearest you. 

2. Screw the objectives into the nose piece and slip an ocular into 
the upper end, if not already on instrument. Turn the lowest power 
objective into position. 

3. Find the light by looking into the ocular (eye piece) and at the 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


7 


same time turning the mirror at such an angle that it reflects light 
from the window or lamp up through the opening in the stage to 
the objective. Mirrors have two faces, a plane and a concave. 
Use the concave unless otherwise directed. 

4. Regulate the quantity of light by the diaphragm. If too bright 
it must be cut off somewhat. The higher powers require brighter 
light than the lower. 

5. Place the slide on the stage in a horizontal position with the 
object over the middle of the opening through which light is thrown 
from the mirror. 

6. With the lower pow’er in position, move the coarse adjustment 
until either the object or small solid particles on the slide appear 
distinctly, which means that the lenses are in focus. The object, 
if not under the lens, may now be brought into the field by moving 
the slide back and forth very slowly while looking through the ocular. 
To improve the focus, slowly turn the fine adjustment screw. 

7. To focus with the high-power objective, first find the object 
with the low power and arrange in the center of the field. Put clips 
on slide without moving it. Raise the body tube by means of the 
coarse adjustment. Then turn the high-power objective into posi- 
tion. (If two objectives only accompany your instrument, the high- 
power is the longer one.) Lower the body tube carrying the objec- 
tive until the objective front lens nearly touches the cover glass. 
A slight movement of the fine adjustment should show the object 
clearly. Never focus down with the high-power objective because 
of the danger of pressing it into the cover glass and ruining the 
delicately mounted lenses. 

8. Accustom yourself to use both eyes indifferently and always 
keep both eyes open. If right handed, observe with the left eye, 
as it is more convenient in making drawings. 

RULES FOR THE CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE 

1. In carrying the microscope to or from your table, grasp it 
firmly by the pillar and hold in an erect position, so that the ocular 
which is fitted loosely into the draw tube may not fall out and its 
lenses become damaged. 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2. Never allow the objective to touch the cover glass or the liquid 
in which the object is mounted. 

3. Note whether the front lens of the objective is clean before 
attempting to use it. If soiled, breathe on the lens and gently wipe 
with an old, clean, soft handkerchief or lens paper. If the lens be 
soiled with balsam or some other sticky substance, moisten the 
handkerchief or lens paper with a drop of xylol, taking care to wipe 
it perfectly dry as soon as possible. 

4. Do not let the objective remain long near corrosive liquids, 
such as strong solutions of iodine, corrosive sublimate, or mineral 
acids. Never examine objects lying in such fluids without putting 
on a cover glass. 

5. Never lift the slide from the stage, but, after raising the objec- 
tive, slide it off the stage without upward movement. 

6. Never allow the stand (microscope without lenses) to be wetted 
with such substances as alcohol, soap, etc., which dissolve lacquer. 

7. Keep the microscope covered when not in use. 

THE TECHNIQUE OF MAKING PERMANENT MOUNTS 

1. The Mounting Medium . — When a microscopic object is to be 
preserved permanently it must be kept from decaying and the fluid 
in which it is placed must be kept from evaporating. These condi- 
tions can be met by adding an antiseptic (acetic acid, formaldehyde) 
to the water used in mounting and carefully sealing the cover glass. 
As a rule, a better way is to use a mounting medium that will not 
evaporate, e.g., glycerine or Canada balsam. Both these fluids have 
a high refractive index and so render the objects penetrated by them 
more transparent. This quality is generally an advantage, but for 
objects already almost transparent it is quite the reverse. Glycerine 
has the disadvantage of always remaining soft, so that the mount 
may at any time be spoiled by careless handling. Canada balsam, 
on the other hand, slowly becomes solid, so that the mount is ex- 
posed to no accident short of actual breakage. Balsam has the dis- 
advantage of being non-miscible with water, so that before it can 
be used the object must be carefully dehydrated. Even after this 
is done, and the object lying in absolute alcohol, an oil must be used 
as an intermediate agent between alcohol and balsam. 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


9 


2. Staining . — For two reasons it is generally better to stain plant 
tissues before mounting. Transparent tissues may become almost 
invisible in glycerine or balsam, and different tissues take a stain 
differently. This being the case it becomes possible to stain one 
tissue and not another, or one tissue with one stain and another in 
the same seel ion with a different stain, so that the different parts 
may be brought out like areas on a colored map. The most common 
stains are hsematoxylin derived from logwood, and various anilin 
stains — safranin, fuchsin, eosin, iodine green, methyl-green, etc. 

METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CANADA BALSAM MOUNT 

1. Stain object with 0.5 per cent, solution of safranin in 50 per 
cent, alcohol for from three to five minutes. 

2. Wash out excess of stain and further dehydrate with 70 per 
cent, alcohol. 

3. Stain with 0.5 per cent, solution of methyl-green in 70 per cent, 
alcohol for twenty seconds or longer, depending upon the nature of 
the material. 

4. Dehydrate and wash out excess of stain with 95 per cent, alcohol 
for two minutes. 

5. Further dehydrate by placing material in absolute alcohol for 
one minute. 

6. Clear in cedar oil. 

7. Mount in Canada balsam. 

8. Label slide. 

METHOD FOR THE STAINING AND MOUNTING OF MATERIAL 
IN PARAFFINE RIBBONS AFFIXED TO SLIDE 

1. Gently heat the dry slides with paraffine ribbons adhering to 
the fixative, high above the Bunsen flame (with the ribbon side up). 

2. Place the slide upright in a well of xylol or turpentine. The 
xylol or turpentine will dissolve the melted paraffine in a minute 
or two. 

3. Take the slide out of the well, wipe off the under side and allow 
a stream of 95 per cent, alcohol to run over the upper side from a 
pipette. 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. Place the slide upright in a well of safranin for from four to 
twenty-four hours. 

5. Take the slide out of the safranin well and extract excess of 
stain with 50 per cent, alcohol. 

6. Place the slide in a well of gentian violet or methyl-green for a 
second or more. The time varies for different objects and can only 
be determined by trial. 

7. Rinse slide with 70 per cent, alcohol from pipette. 

8. Pour absolute alcohol over sections, follow with a few drops of 
clove oil, replace clove oil with cedar oil. 

9. Mount in balsam. 

MAKING OF SECTIONS 

Free-hand. Sectioning. — Free-hand sections are usually satisfactory 
for the general examination of roots, stems, leaves, barks and many 
fruits and seeds. Material which is fresh may be sectioned at once, 
but dry material should be well soaked in warm water before using. 
Very hard material like heartwoods, the shells of nuts and seeds, 
may be softened in solution of caustic potash or ammonia water 
and then washed free of alkali before sectioning. 

The object to be sectioned is held between the thumb and finger 
of the left hand, or, if small and of soft texture, it must be placed 
between two flat pieces of elder pith. The upper surface of the 
razor is wetted with water or 50 per cent, alcohol. The razor, which 
should be real sharp, is held in the right hand and is drawn across the 
object with the edge toward the student and the blade sliding on 
the forefinger of the left hand. The sections should be cut as thin 
as possible. As soon as a number of sections have been cut, they 
can be transferred to a vessel of water with a camel’s hair brush. 

Sectioning in Paraffine or Celloidin. — When it is necessary to study 
the microscopic structure of very delicate plant parts, the material 
should be imbedded in paraffine or celloidin, subsequently hardened, 
and sectioned by means of a sliding or rotary microtome. In your 
course this work will be carried on by the laboratory staff. 

KINDS OF SECTIONS 

1. A transverse or cross-section is one made horizontally through 
the object, hence its plane lies at right angles to the long axis. 


FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 


1 1 


2. A radial-longitudinal section is one which is made parallel to 
the long axis of the object in such a way that it lies in plane of the 
radius. 

3. A tangential-longitudinal section is one made parallel to a plane 
tangent to the cylinder. 

MICROMETRY 

The unit of length used in microscopic measurement is the micron 
(n) which is one-thousandth part of a millimeter (0.001 mm.) or one 
twenty-five thousandth part of an inch. 

In measuring microscopic objects it is necessary to make use of 
a micrometer of some kind. That pretty generally used is the 
ocular micrometer. It is a circle of glass suitable for insertion within 
the ocular with a scale etched on its surface. The scale is divided 
to tenths of a millimeter (0.1 mm.) or the entire surface of the glass 
may be etched with squares (0.1 mm.), the net micrometer. 

STANDARDIZATION OF OCULAR MICROMETER 

The value of each division of the ocular micrometer scale must be 
ascertained for each optical combination (ocular, objective, and 
tube length) by the aid of a stage micrometer. 

The stage micrometer is a slide with a scale engraved on it divided 
to hundredths of a millimeter (0.01 mm.), in some cases to tenths 
of a millimeter (0.1 mm.), every tenth line being made longer than 
intervening ones, to facilitate counting. 

Method: 

1. Insert the ocular micrometer within the tube of the ocular by 
placing it on the diaphragm of the ocular, and adjust the stage 
micrometer by placing it on the stage of the microscope. 

2. Focus the scale of the stage micrometer accurately so that the 
lines of the two micrometers will appear in the same plane. Make 
the lines on the two micrometers parallel each other. This can 
often be done by turning the ocular to the right or left while looking 
into the microscope. 

3. Make two of the lines on the ocular micrometer coincide with 
two on the stage micrometer. Note the number of included 
divisions. 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. Note the known value for each division of the stage micrometer 
scale which may either be etched on the stage micrometer or indi- 
cated on a label found pasted upon it. If the value indicated is 0.01 
mm. (/"loo mm.) then each division of the stage micrometer scale 
has a value of 10 microns; if 0.1 mm. (}^o mm.), 100 microns. 

5. Multiply the number of included divisions of the stage microm- 
eter scale by the value in microns given for each division and divide 
the result by the number of included divisions of the ocular microm- 
eter scale. The quotient represents the value of each division of 
the ocular micrometer scale. 

6. Note the optical combination (number of ocular, objective and 
tube length) used and keep a record of it with the calculated microm- 
eter value. Repeat for each of the combinations. 

To measure an object by this method read off the number of 
divisions it occupies of the ocular micrometer scale, and express the 
result in microns by looking up the recorded value for the optical 
combination used. 


CHAPTER II 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN [DRYOPTERIS 
(ASPIDIUM OR NEPHRO DIUM ) FILIX-MAS] 

The Male Fern along with the Marginal Fern ( Dryopteris margin- 
alis) have long been known to the pharmaceutical and medical pro- 
fessions as the source of the drug Aspidium, a most valuable remedy 
for the expulsion of tapeworm. The parts of these plants employed 
are the rhizome and stipes which are collected in autumn, freed of 
the roots and dead portions and dried at a temperature not exceeding 
7o°C. 

HISTORY OF THE SPOROPHYTE OR ASEXUAL GENERATION 

Gross Structure of Stem. — -The main axis of Dryopteris Filix-mas 
is the creeping underground stem or rhizome which is oblique or 
ascending in habit. It gives off numerous roots from its lower and 
posterior portions and fronds from its upper and anterior portions. 
Behind the fronds of the present year are to be noted the persistent 
stalk bases of fronds of previous seasons. Lateral buds are frequently 
to be noted connected with these. The roots are slender and brown 
with semi-transparent apices. They are inserted on the bases of 
the fronds, close to their junction with the stem. The growing end 
of the rhizome is called the anterior extremity and is marked by the 
presence of an apical bud overarched by young fronds. The opposite 
end is known as the posterior extremity and in the living plant is 
constantly decaying as the anterior portion elongates. 

Histology of Mature Stem. — Passing from periphery toward the 
center the following structures are to be observed: 

i. Epidermis, a protective outer covering tissue, composed of a 
single layer of brownish polyhedral cells from which are given off 
scaly hairs. 


13 


14 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2. Outer cortex (hypodermis), a zone of several layers of thick- 
walled lignified cells separating the epidermis from the inner cortex 
beneath. Its main function is to support the epidermis. 


Fig. 2 . — Dryopteris filix-mas — Plant and section through pinnule and sorus. 

{Sayre.) 

3. Inner cortex of several layers of more or less isodiametric cells 
with thin cellulose walls and containing stored starch surrounded by 
a protoplasmic investment. These cells conduct sap by osmosis and 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


15 


store food. Between the cells are to be noted intercellular air spaces, 
many of which contain internal glandular hairs. 

4. Fundamental tissue, resembling the last in aspect and function. 

5. Vascular Bundles. — These are of two kinds, viz.: stem bundles 
and leaf-trace bundles. Both are of elliptical outline and are em- 
bedded in the parenchyma forming the broad central matrix. The 
stem bundles are comparatively broad and form a continuous net- 
work with good-sized meshes, each mesh being opposite the point of 
insertion of one of the leaves. Tn transverse section these bundles 
are seen to be usually ten in number and arranged in an interrupted 
circle within the fundamental tissue. The leaf-trace bundles are 
comparatively narrow and are observed to come off of the stem- 
bundles and pass out through the cortex into the leaves (fronds). 
When each bundle is examined under a high-power magnification it 
is seen to be composed of: (a) an endodermis or bundle sheath , a 
single layer of cells with yellowish walls and granular contents; ( b ) 
a pericambium or phloem sheath of one to three layers of delicate 
thin-walled cells, rich in protoplasm; (c) a phloem , a broad zone of 
tissue formed of phloem cells, with thin cellulose walls and proto- 
plasmic contents, which convey sugar in solution from the leaves 
to the roots and broader sieve tubes which appear polygonal in trans- 
verse section and whose function is that of conveying soluble pro- 
teins in the same direction; (d) a xylem (wood) formed of thin-walled 
xylem cells which store food and scalariform tubes or tracheids which 
copduct crude sap (water with mineral salts in solution) from the 
roots to the leaves (fronds). Since the xylem is surrounded by the 
phloem, the fibro-vascular bundle is of the concentric type. Strictly 
speaking the endodermis and pericambium are accessory regions sur- 
rounding, but not part of the bundle proper. 

Histology of Growing Apex. — When the bases of the leaves of the 
current year, the circinate leaves of the following year and the large 
mass of brown scales have been removed from around the apical bud 
of a well-grown plant, the following structures may readily be ob- 
served with a hand lens: 

1. The apical cone ( punctum vegetationis) , a rounded papilla, which 
occupies a terminal position in the apical region. 

2. The young fronds, arranged around the apical cone. 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Upon removing the extreme apex of the apical cone with a sharp 
razor, mounting in dilute glycerine or water and examining under 
low power, it will be noted that a large pyramidal cell occupies the 
center of the apical cone. This is the apical cell. The cells sur- 
rounding it have been derived by segmentation (cell-division) from 
it, by means of walls parallel to its three sides; they are termed seg- 
ment cells and in turn undergo further division and redivision to 
originate the entire stem tissue and leaf tissue. Step by step the 
tissue cells become modified into epidermal, cortical, bundle and 
fundamental cells. 

Histology of Mature Root. -Transverse sections cut some distance 
above the apex will present the following structures for examination: 

1. Epidermis, of epidermal cells whose outer walls are brown. 
Some of these cells have grown out as root hairs which surround soil 
particles and absorb water with mineral salts in solution. 

2. Cortex, of many layers of cortical parenchyme cells with brown 
walls. The outer layers of cells of this region are thin- walled while 
the extreme inner ones are lignified and form a sclerenchymatous 
ring which surrounds the 

3. Endodermis, a single layer of cells tangentially elongated. 

4. Pericambium (Pericycle), usually of two layers of thin- walled 
cells containing protoplasm and large nuclei. This region surrounds 
the 

5. Radial fibro-vascular bundle, consisting of two phloem patches 
of phloem cells and sieve tubes on either side of two radial xylem 
arms of xylem cells, spiral tracheae and scalariform tubes. 

6. Lateral rootlets which take origin in the pericambium. 

Histology of Root Apex. -Microscopic examination shows this 

region to be composed of soft, pale, growing cells ending in the tri- 
angular apex-cell of the root. From the free base of the apex cell 
segment cells are cut off as calyptrogen cells. These by dividing 
form the root cap. The root cap or calyptra consists of a mass of 
loosely attached cells which forms a protective covering around the 
tip of the root. 

From the inner sloping sides of the apex cell the segment cells give 
origin to the dermatogen, which by repeated division of its cells origi- 
nates the epidermis (outer protective covering of the root), the peri- 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


17 


blem, originating cortex, and the plerome originating the bundle and 
related tissue. 

Continuity of Crude Sap Flow. — The crude sap (water with mineral 
salts in solution) penetiates the thin walls of the root hairs by osmosis 
and passes into the interior of hairs, thence into the root xylem and 
through this to stem xylem, thence through stem xylem into the 
leaves. 

Histology of Stipe (Petiole). — This in transverse section passing 
from periphery toward the center presents the following structural 
characteristics: 

1. Epidermis, a single layer of epidermal cells with dark brown 
outer walls. 

2. Outer cortex (hypodermis), a wide band of small cells with ligni- 
fied walls. 

3. Inner cortex, similar to inner cortex of stem but devoid of leaf- 
trace bundle. 

4. Fundamental parenchyma, similar to same region of stem in 
which are embedded a number of concentric fibro-vascular bundles 
arranged in an interrupted circle. Each of these shows a central 
xylem mass surrounded by an outer phloem mass. Each bundle is 
enveloped by a pericambium and an endodermis or bundle sheath. 

Histology of Lamina. — In transverse and surface sections the 
lamina or blade shows the following structural details: 

1. Upper epidermis of wavy- walled, slightly chlorophvlloid, flat 
upper epidermal cells devoid of stomata but with rather thick cuticle. 

2. Mesophyll of irregular shaped chlorophylloid cells containing 
abundant chloroplasts. Intercellular-air-spaces are found between 
various cells which are larger in the lower than the upper region. 
Internal glandular hairs are frequently to be discerned in many of 
these spaces. 

3. Concentric vascular bundles or laminar veins that distribute 
sap to, and carry sap from the mesophyll. These are seen to be 
embedded in the mesophyll. The xylem portion of each bundle is 
nearest to the upper surface of the leaf and so the bundles approach 
the collateral type. 

4. Endodermis, a continuous layer of mesophyll cells which sur- 
rounds each bundle and binds it in place. 

2 


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PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


5 . Lower epidermis of wavy-walled, flattened, chlorophylloid cells 
with thin cuticle and many stomata (breathing pores). Each stoma 
is surrounded by a pair of crescent-shaped guard cells which regulate 
its opening and closing. The upper and lower epidermis are con- 
tinuous around the laminar margin. 

Comparative Physiology of Root, Stem and Leaf (Frond). — The 
primary function of the roots of the Male Fern is that of absorption 
of water with mineral salts in solution. The secondary function 
is that of support for the stem, the tertiary, that of storing food- 
stuffs to tide the plant over the season when vegetative activities 
are lessened. Water is the most essential of all materials absorbed 
by vegetable organisms. It is found in the soil surrounding the 
soil particles with certain mineral salts dissolved in it. The delicate 
root-hairs with thin cellulose walls, protoplasmic lining and sap 
denser than the soil water, are firmly adherent to these particles. 
The soil water diffuses through these walls by osmosis and comes into 
relation with the ectoplasm, a delicate protoplasmic membrane which 
has the power of selecting what it wants and rejecting what it does 
not need. In this way only such solutes as are of value to the plant 
are admitted. The water with mineral salts in solution, once within 
the root-hair protoplast, is called “crude sap.” This passes through 
the hair into the cortical parenchyma cells which are in contact with 
the spiral ducts and scalariform tracheids. It passes from one cortex 
cell to another by osmosis and, under considerable root pressure, is 
forced into the spiral and scalariform tubes of the xylem. Therein 
it is conveyed upward by root pressure through the tracheids of the 
stem bundles into those of the leaves and finally osmoses into the 
leaf parenchyme cells (mesophyll). 

Carbon dioxide, (C0 2 ), from the air enters the leaf through the 
stomata. From the stomata it moves through the intercellular air 
spaces to the mesophyll cells which line these, whence it is absorbed. 
Within the mesophyll cells are found small chloroplasts composed 
of protoplasm and chlorophyll. The kinetic energy of the sun’s rays 
is absorbed by the chlorophyll which is thus energized to break up 
the C0 2 and H 2 0 into their component elements C, H and O, and 
rearrange them in such a way as to ultimately form sugar or starch. 
This process is called photosynthesis. According to von Baeyer, 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


19 


C0 2 is split into C and 0 2 , the C being retained, the 0 2 given off. 
The nascent C is linked with H 2 0 to form CH 2 0 (formic-aldehyde); 
six molecules of this are then united to form grape sugar (C 6 Hi 2 0 6 ). 
The formation of starch may be expressed by the following equation: 
6C0 2 + 5H 2 0 = C 6 H 10 O 5 + 60 2 . A portion of the grape sugar is 
removed from solution by the chloroplast and converted into starch 
which is stored up within it; another portion is used to nourish the 
protoplasm of the cell. But the greater portion of sugar manu- 
factured descends in solution through the phloem cells of the bundles 
of the veins, mid-rib and stipe to the stem or roots where it is re- 
moved from solution by the action of the leucoplasts which convert 
it into reserve starch. Sugar and starch, however, are not the only 
food materials manufactured in the leaf. Proteins are likewise 
formed. These are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 
sulphur and sometimes phosphorus. They are formed from grape 
sugar with the addition of nitrogen and the other elements by the 
living protoplasm. The source of nitrogen, sulphur and phos- 
phorus is the mineral salts which are found in the crude sap. These 
proteins descend through the sieve tubes of the veins, midrib and 
petiole, to the stem and roots nourishing all of these parts with protein 
material. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Sori and Sporangia. — The 

sporangia or spore cases are found clustered together in circular 
groups on the under surface of the pinnules nearer the mid-vein than 
the margin. Each group of sporangia is covered with a membranous 
expansion of the epidermis called the indusium. The whole is called 
a sorus (Fig. 2 ) (pi. sori) and contains many sporangia. Each sporan- 
gium is composed of: (a) the stalk of considerable length and usually 
comprising three rows of cells, outgrowths of the epidermis of the 
pinmile; and ( b ) the head, sub-globular and hollow, consisting for 
the most part of a covering of thin walled, flattened cells within 
which will be noted a marginal ring of cells with walls having 
U-shaped thickenings and called the annulus. 

Within the sporangium are found the spores. Each spore is a 
single cell composed of an outer brown wall with band-like markings 
called an exosporium, an inner thinner wall or endosporium, and within 
this a mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus. 


20 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Rupture of Sporangium and Spore Dissemination. — As was pre- 
viously indicated, each sporangial head has a row of cells with 
U-shaped thickenings around the margin called an annulus. As the 
sporangium matures the water escapes from the cells, pulling them 
together and holding the annulus like a bent spring. The thinner 
walled cells at the side of the spore case opposite the annulus, unable 
to stand the strain are consequently torn, the annulus straightens 
and a wide rent is made in the sporangium. The annulus then recoils 
and hurls the spores out of the sporangium. This closes the sporo- 
phyte generation. 


Fig. 3. — Sporangia of an undetermined species of fern; li, lip-cells; an, annulus; 
st, stalk; sp, mature spores. Each of the four nuclei in the upper cells of the 
stalk is in the terminal cell of one of the four rows of cells that compose the stalk. 
(Gager.) 

History of the Gametophyte or Sexual Generation. — The fern 
spore, falling upon a moist surface, germinates, producing a delicate 
green septate filament called a protonema. One end of this structure 
shows larger cells which, by the formation of oblique walls, cut out 
an apical cell of somewhat triangular shape. This is the growing 
point of what eventually becomes a mature green heart-shaped body 
called the “prothallium” or “prothallus.” The prothallium, about 
the size of an infant’s finger nail, develops on its under surface anther- 
idia, or male sexual organs, archegonia, or female sexual organs, and 
rhizoids or hair-like absorptive structures. The antheridia appear 
three to five weeks after spore germination. They are hemispherical 
in shape and are situated among the rhizoids toward the posterior 
end. Each antheridium consists of a three-celled wall which com- 
pletely surrounds the spermatocytes or mother-cells of the sper- 
matozoids. Within each spermatocyte the protoplasm arranges itself 


,IFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


21 


Fig. 4. — A, under surface of a fern prothallium showing archegonia (/), 
antheridia (m) and rhizoids (r): B, immature archegonium showing binucleate 
neck canal cell ( n.c.c .), ventral canal cell (v.c.c.), and egg (e); C, mature 
archegonium showing sperms (sp.) moving through neck canal (n.c.) toward 
ovum ( e ), and venter ( v ). All highly magnified. 


22 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


in a spiral fashion forming a spermatozoid, a spiral, many ciliated, 
male sexual cell. From two to four weeks after the maturation of 
the antheridia, the arcliegonia make their appearance toward the 
indented apex of the lower prothallial surface as outgrowths of the 
prothallial cushion. Since they appear later than the antheridia 
they are not likely to be fertilized by spermatozoids from the anther- 
idia of the same prothallium. Each archegonium is composed of a 
venter, neck, neck canal-cells, ventral canal-cell, and ovum or egg-cell. 
The neck is composed of cells arranged in four rows, forming a cylin- 
der, one layer of cells thick. This protrudes from the surface of 


Fig. 5. — A, median longitudinal section through immature antheridium, and 
cell of prothallium showing prothallial cell ( p ), and antheridial wall surrounding a 
number of spermatocytes; B, similar section through mature antheridium and cell 
of prothallium showing fully developed spermatozoids ( sp .) enclosed by wall of 
antheridium. Both highly magnified. 

the prothallium and encloses the neck canal-cells and ventral canal- 
cell. The ovum is embedded in the prothallial cushion just beneath 
the ventral canal-cell. Upon the maturation of the archegonium, 
the canal-cells are transformed into a mucilaginous substance which 
fills a canal extending from the outside opening (mouth) to the 
ovum. 

During wet weather the mature antheridial wall bursts open and 
the many ciliated spermatozoids escape into the water. These mov- 
ing in the water are drawn by the chemotactic malic acid to the 
mouths of the archegonia of another prothallus and, passing down 
the canal of each of these, gather around the ovum. One, probably 
the best adapted, fuses with the ovum and fertilizes it forming an 
oospore or fertilized egg. 


LIFE HISTORY OF THE MALE FERN 


2 3 


Origin of New Sporophyte or Diploid Plant from Fertilized Egg. — 

The fertilized egg now rapidly divides and redivides to form octant 
cells. The octant cells further divide to produce anteriorly a stem 
rudiment (one cell), first leaf (two cells), second leaf (one cell) and, 
posteriorly, root rudiment (one cell), foot rudiment (two cells) and 
hair rudiments (one cell). 

Growth of Seedling into Mature Sporophyte. — The foot rudiment 
develops into the foot which obtains nourishment from the prothal- 
lium upon which the young sporophyte is for a time parasitic. The 
root rudiment becomes the first root which grows downward into 
the soil. The stem and leaves turn upward. In a few weeks the 
prothallus decays and the sporophyte is established as an independ- 
ent plant. More roots and leaves (fronds) are developed and ere 
long continued growth results in the formation of a mature sporo- 
phyte which presents for examination: (i) a subterranean stem bear- 
ing several roots; and (2) aerial fronds, each of which consists of a 
stipe or petiole and a lamina or blade, divisible into pinna or lobes 
and pinnules, upon which last sori are developed. 

Alternation of Generations. — It will be observed that in the life 
cycle of the Male Fern there occur two distinct generations, one, a 
sporophyte or asexual generation which begins with the oospore and 
ends with the dispersion of asexual spores; a second, the gametophyte 
or sexual generation beginning with the protonemal outgrowth of 
the spore and ending with the fertilization of the egg to form an 
oospore. The sporophyte gives rise to the gametophyte which in 
turn gives origin to the sporophyte. 


CHAPTER III 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM (PINUS STROBUS) 

The White Pine frequently called the Weymouth Pine ( Pinus 
Strobus), one of the principal timber trees of the Northern States 
and Canada, is also of value in pharmacy and medicine. The inner 
bark of its trunk and branches is used because of its valuable ex- 
pectorant properties and is official in the N. F. IV. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHITE PINE TREE (MATURE 
SPOROPHYTE) 

From an underground spreading root system there arises an erect 
aerial trunk or stem that extends from the ground to the apex of the 
tree, ending in a terminal bud. The trunk rarely exceeds 3 feet in 
diameter and 125 feet in height and is averagely iK to 3 feet in 
diameter and 50 to 90 feet high. At a varying distance above the 
soil, depending upon environal conditions as well as the age of plant, 
whorls of lateral branches (three to seven in a whorl) are seen ema- 
nating from the trunk in horizontal fashion at various levels up to 
near the apex. These become, under conditions prevalent when the 
tree is grown in the open, gradually shorter until the summit is 
reached, giving to the crown or upper part of the tree the appearance 
of a pyramid. These branches give rise to other branches which 
agree with the lateral branches in bearing commonly only scale-like 
leaves as well as ending in terminal buds. Another kind of branch, 
however, is found which is always shorter than the scaly branches. 
This type of branch is called a “spur shoot ” and arises from the 
former branches. The spur shoots bear the needles or foliage leaves 
which are light green when young and bluish-green, soft, flexible, 
2 l 2 to 5 inches long when mature. The “needles” occur in tufts 
( fascicles ) of five, are triangular in cross-section, have finely serrate 
( saw-toothed ) edges and are surrounded at the base by a deciduous 


24 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


25 


sheath. These foliage leaves persist until the end of their second 
year when they are shed with the spur shoot which bears them. 

The white pine, like most of its allies among the Coniferae, bears 
cones. These structures are of two kinds, viz.: staminate and car- 
pellate. Both kinds are produced on the same tree. 


Fig. 6. — -Transverse section of pine stem in third year of growth showing 
xylem (a), cork (6), cortex (c). secretion reservoir (d), cambium ( e ), phloem (/), 
and pith (g). (Photomicrograph.) 


Staminate Cones. — The yellow, ovate, staminate cones appear 
about May and are clustered at the base of the new growth of the 
current season. Each consists of a main axis (modified branch) 
which bears spirals of scales (micro sporophylls or stamens). On the 
under surface of each scale are the spore-cases (micros por angia) , 
which develop the microspores (pollen grains). Each pollen grain 
when mature consists of a central fertile cell and a pair of air-sacs 


26 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 7. — Transverse section of white pine needle (leaf) showing epidermis (a), 
infolded parenchyma cells of mesophyll ( b , b'), oil reservoir (c), endodermis ( d ). 
and clear cellular area surrounding fibrovascular tissue in center (e). 


Fig. 8. — Staminate cones of the Austrian pine ( Pinus austriaca) . Below, before 
shedding pollen; above, after shedding. (Gager.) 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


27 


or wings, one on either side of the fertile cell. The purpose of the 
latter is to give greater buoyancy in the air to the microspore. 

Carpellate Cones.- — The young carpellate cones appear in May or 
early June as pinkish-purple structures arranged in solitary fashion 
or in small groups, lateral along the new growth. Each terminates 


Fig. 9. — Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris) . A-D, stages in the development of the 
carpellate cone, and its carpotropic movements. E, very young carpellate cone 
much enlarged; F, ventral, G, dorsal views of a scale from E; 1, ovuliferous scale; 
2, ovule (in longitudinal section); 3, pollen chamber and micropyle leading to 
the apex of the nucellus (megasporangium); 4, integument of the ovule; G, 1, tip 
of ovuliferous scale; 5, bract; 4, integument; H, longitudinal section at right 
angles to the surface of the ovuliferous scale (diagrammatic); 6, megaspore; 7, 
pollen chamber; I, longitudinal section of a mature cone; 6, ovule; J, scale from 
a mature cone; 6, seed; w, wing of seed; K, dissection of mature seed; h, hard seed 
coat; c, dry membraneous remains of the nucellus, here folded back to show the 
endosperm and embryo; e, embryo; p, remains of nucellus; L, embryo; c, cotyle- 
dons; e, hypocotyl; r, root-end. (Gager.) 


a lateral axillary branch. A carpellate cone is composed of a main 
axis which bears spirals of scales, by some termed megasporophylls 
{carpels). Each scale is composed of an ovuliferous scale bearing 
two ovules or megasori and a bract. Each megasorus contains a 
nucellus or megasporangium which is surrounded by an integument 


28 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


except at the apex where an opening, the micropyle is evident. The 
micropyle is the gateway to the pollen chamber which lies below it. 
Within the nucellus occurs a megaspore or embryo sac. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE GAMETOPHYTE GENERATION 

The Gametophyte generation of the White Pine begins with the 
development of the male and female gametophytes and terminates 
with the fertilization of the egg. 

The Male Gametophyte. — The male gametophyte commences to 
form in the mature pollen grain before the pollen is shed. A series 
of three nuclear divisions takes place which cut off two small prothal- 
lial cells (traces of one of which may be seen pushed up against the 
wall of the fertile cell of the pollen grain), a tube nucleus and a 
generative cell. At this stage the pollen is shed and some of it is 


Fig. io. — The white pine (Pinus Strobus). Sections through mature pollen 
grains; at the left the remnants of two prothallial cells can be seen, while at the 
right all signs of the first cell have disappeared. Pollen collected June 9, 1898. 
X about 600. (Gager, after Margaret C. Ferguson.) 


carried by air currents to the carpellate cones where it sifts in be- 
tween the ovule-bearing scales and accumulates at the scale bases. 
This is pollination. A number of the pollen grains are drawn close 
to the nucellus of the ovule by the drying up of the viscid fluid 
which fills the pollen chamber. In this fluid they germinate form- 
ing pollen tubes. The transfer of pollen grains from the pollen sac 
to the pollen chamber and consequent germination therein is called 
pollination. 

The Female Gametophyte.- — If the embryo sac be examined at 
about the time of pollination, it will be found to consist of a single 
cell containing a single nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. Very 
shortly afterward, however, the nucleus divides repeatedly to form a 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


2 9 


large number of nuclei which are scattered throughout the cyto- 
plasm. Each nucleus accumulates around itself a portion of the 
cytoplasm and ultimately cell walls are laid down and the entire 
embryo sac contains endosperm (prothallial) tissue. Toward the 
micropylar end of the endosperm { proihallus ) originate several 
archegonia. 

Each archegonium consists of a much-reduced neck of four cells 
and an egg {ovum) which lies embedded in the prothallus which 
forms a narrow layer of cells around it called the jacket. The con- 
tents of the mature embryo sac constitutes the female gametophyte. 


Fig. 11. — White pine (Pinus Strobus). At left, megasporangium with mega- 
spore in the center; above, pollen grains in the micropyle and pollen chamber. At 
right, pollen grains beginning to germinate; the cells of the integument have 
X enlarged and closed the micropyle. {Gager, after Margaret C. Ferguson.) 


Fertilization.- — About a year after pollination the pollen tubes, 
lying within the pollen chamber show signs of renewed activity. 
The tube nucleus passes to the tip of the tube. The generative-cell 
divides to form a body and a stalk-cell which pass into the tube. 
The body-cell later forms two sperm nuclei. While these changes are 
taking place the tube is penetrating the nucellus and growing toward 
the embryo sac with its contained female gametophyte. It finally 
enters it, passing between the neck-cells of the archegonium. The 
tip of the tube then breaks and the entire tube contents is emptied 
into the egg. One of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus 
and fertilizes it forming an oospore. 


30 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Seed Formation and Distribution.- — The oospore undergoes re- 
peated divisions and forms the embryo or young sporophyte plant 
and a suspensor to which it is attached. The embryo is nourished 
by a portion of the prothallus but the greater part of the prothallus 
forms the endosperm tissue of the seed surrounding the embryo. 
The thin nucellus persists as an endosperm covering. The integu- 
ment becomes modified to form the hard protective seed coat. A 


Fig. 12. — White pine (Pinus Strobus). Vertical section through theupper part 
of an ovule, shortly before fertilization, s.n., sperm- nuclei; st. c., stalk-cell; t.n. 
tube-nucleus; arch, archegonium; e.n., egg-nucleus. (Gager, after Margaret C. 
Ferguson.) 


portion of the scale of the cone directly above and adjacent to the 
ovule forms a membranous wing which separates from the scale as 
part of the seed. 

By this time (about two years after pollination) the scales of the 
cone, now quite woody, separate, the seeds are shaken out, and many 
are carried for a considerable distance by winds. 


LIFE HISTORY OF A GYMNOSPERM 


3 r 


Germination of the Seed.- — Under favorable conditions, the seeds 
absorb water and germinate in the spring following their dispersal. 
The hypocotyl of the embryo appears first, arching upward and 
downward, and, straightening out, draws the green cotyledons with 
it which spread out toward the light while it grows into the soil to 
form the tap root and in time the remainder of the root system. 
Thus the seedling sporophyte is formed which in time develops into 
the mature White Pine tree. 


CHAPTER IV 


LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM (ERYTHRONIUM 
AMERICANUM) 

This attractive little plant, commonly called the Dog’s Tooth 
Violet but related to the Lily, is found in the hollows of woods and 
may be seen in flower during the month of April in the Middle 
Atlantic States. It consists of an underground stem bearing scales 
(modified leaves) which is termed a bulb. From the lower surface 
of the bulb are given off numerous slender rootlets which penetrate 
the soil and from the upper surface, a pair of oblong lance-shaped 
leaves of pale green color mottled with purple and white and later, a 
flower stalk {scape) which bears upon its summit a single yellow 
nodding flower which is often marked with purple stripes. The 
flower consists of a torus or receptacle which will be observed as the 
upper swollen end of the flower stalk (scape). Inserted upon it, 
passing from periphery toward the center, will be noted four whorls 
of floral leaves which in order are calyx, corolla, andrcecium and gynce- 
cium. The calyx is composed of three lance-shaped and recurved 
yellow parts called sepals; the corolla of three similarly looking 
parts called petals which alternate in position with the sepals. 
Both of these whorls are collectively called the perianth or floral 
envelope. The androecium or male system of organs is composed 
of two whorls or circles of structures called microsporophylls or 
stamens. There are three stamens in each whorl. The outer whorl 
of stamens will be found opposite the sepals while the inner will be 
observed opposite the petals. Each stamen (microsporophyll) con- 
sists of an awl-shaped stalk or filament bearing upon its summit an 
oblong-linear body called an anther. The anther consists of two 
lobes called microsori. Each lobe or microsorus contains two anther 
sacs or microsporangia in which when mature are to be found micro- 
spores or pollen grains. In the center of the flower will be noted 


32 


LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM 


33 


the gynoecium or female system of organs. This, upon dissection, 
will be found to consist of three fused carpellary leaves termed mega- 
sporophylls (carpels) forming a somewhat flask-shaped structure 
called a pistil. The swollen basal portion of the pistil is called the 
ovary; the stalk which arises from it is called the style and the knob- 
like viscid summit of the style is termed the stigma. 

Development of the Female Gamelophyte Through the Maturation of 
the Embryo Sac. — In its immature condition the embryo sac ( mega- 
spore ) contains a mass of protoplasm surrounding a nucleus. This 
nucleus undergoes three divisions forming as a result eight nuclei 
which ultimately arrange themselves within the protoplasm of the 
embryo sac as follows: three of them occupy a position at the apex, 
the lower nucleus of the group being that of the egg or ovum , the 
other two nuclei being the synergids or assisting nuclei; at the oppo- 
site end of the sac three nuclei known as antipodals take their posi- 
tion; the two remaining nuclei called polar nuclei take up a position 
near the center of the embryo sac. In this condition the contents 
of the embryo sac constitutes the female gamelophyte. 

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION 

The mature pollen grains are discharged from the ripened anther 
through the splitting open of its wall. They are transferred to the 
stigma of the pistil of another Erythronium flower through the 
agency of insects. Here they germinate, each putting forth a tube 
(pollen tube). The pollen tubes, carrying within it two sperm 
nuclei and a tube nucleus embedded in protoplasm, penetrate 
through the style canal until they reach the micropyles of various 
ovules. Each enters and passes through a micropyle, then piercing 
the nucellus, grows toward the embryo sac. The tip of the tube 
fuses with the end of the embryo sac and the two sperm nuclei are 
discharged into the sac. One of these sperm nuclei passes between 
the synergids and fuses with the nucleus of the egg to form an 
oospore. By this time the tube nucleus has disintegrated. The 
oospore by repeated divisions develops into as many as four embryos 
or young sporophyte plants. Only one of these, however, persists, 
The polar nuclei fuse to form the endosperm nucleus which soon 
undergoes rapid division into a large number of nuclei scattered 

3 


34 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


about through the protoplasm of the embryo sac. Later cell walls 
are laid down and endosperm is formed. The endosperm cells soon 
become fdled with abundant starch which is later to be utilized by 
the embryo during germination. 

Microscopical examination of sections of the ovary will reveal it 
to be composed of three chambers called locules within each of which 
are to be noted several inverted ovules. Each of these ovules is 
developed upon a nourishing tissue termed “ placenta ” which con- 
nects the ovules to the inner angle of the wall of the locule. The 
ovule is composed of a central prominent megasporangium or nucellus 
which is almost completely invested by two upgrown integuments 
or coverings. The opening between the tips of the inner integument 
is called the micro pyle (little gate). This is the gateway for the 
entrance of the pollen tube on its way to the nucellus. It is also 
the exit door for the hypocotyl of the embryo after the fertilized 
and ripened ovule becomes a seed. Within the nucellus, if the sec- 
tions examined have been properly fixed, will be found a megaspore 
or embryo sac. 

MATURATION OF THE POLLEN GRAIN AND FORMATION OF THE 
MALE GAMETOPHYTE 

The pollen grains (microspores) within the anther sacs all arise 
from a number of tetrads (groups of four) which are formed by the 
division and redivision of pollen mother-cells preceding them. Each 
pollen grain, after the tetrads have separated into their components, 
consists of an outer firm wall or exosporium, an inner wall or endo- 
sporium, within which will be found the region called the fovilla, 
which is nothing other than a mass of protoplasm containing a 
nucleus. Before the pollen is shed from the anther its protoplasmic 
contents undergo a series of changes leading up to the development 
of the male gametophyte. The nucleus and protoplasm enveloping 
it divide to form two cells, one a generative-cell containing a genera- 
tive nucleus, the other a tube-cell containing a tube nucleus. The 
generative nucleus then divides to form two sperm nuclei and the 
partition wall between the two cells disappears. In this condition 
the protoplasmic contents of the pollen grain constitute the male 
gametophyte. 


LIFE HISTORY OF AN ANGIOSPERM 


35 


RIPENING OF THE OVULE TO FORM THE SEED AND OF THE 
OVARY TO FORM THE FRUIT 

While the embryo and endosperm are being formed, the ovule 
enlarges and its integuments become modified to form a hard horny 
seed coat which encloses the endosperm surrounding the embryo. 
The ovary, containing the ovules, has by this time ripened to form 
a three-valved loculicidal capsule enclosing the seeds. 

GERMINATION OF THE SEED AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
MATURE SPOROPHYTE 

The seeds are fully developed by June or July when the capsule 
or fruit splits open to discharge them. They fall to the ground and 
he dormant until the following spring when they germinate or com- 
mence to grow. Each seed absorbs water from the ground which 
stimulates the ferment amylase, contained in the endosperm cells, to 
break up the insoluble starch into soluble sugar which passes into 
solution and diffuses into the cells of the embryo where the proto- 
plasm changes it into additional protoplasm and so the embryo in- 
creases in size, therefore, grows. The pressure of the swollen endo- 
sperm and growing embryo becomes so great that the seed coat 
bursts; the hypocotyl emerges first, dragging the cylindrical cotyle- 
don out of the seed coat and epicotyl with it. The hypocotyl elon- 
gates and extends itself into the soil where it develops a root near 
its tip. The tip enlarges through the storage of starch, manufac- 
tured by the green cotyledon and becomes a bulb. The bulb soon 
develops within it a plumule, the cotyledon withers, and the young 
plant (seedling) passes the following winter in this condition. 

During the next spring the plumule develops into a foliage leaf and 
the bulb gives rise from its base to several slender elongated runners, 
which, at their tips develop runner bulbs. These runner bulbs the 
third year give origin to another set of runners similar to those 
formed during the second year which also develop runner bulbs at 
their tips. A foliage leaf is also formed by each. The following 
spring (spring of fourth year) one of these bulbs develops into a 
mature sporophyte plant bearing a single flower at the summit of 
its elongated scape. 


36 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS 

1. In both are developed those structures in which there is no 
homologue, e.g., flowers. 

2. In both the flowers develop at least two sets of leaves (either 
on one or two plants of the same species) called sporophylla or 
sporophyll leaves, the stamens and carpels. The stamens or stam- 
inal leaves are also termed microsporophylls. The carpels or 
carpellate leaves are also known as megasporophylls. 

3. Both groups produce microspores or pollen grains and mega- 
spores or embryo sacs. 

4. In both are developed on the evident generation, the plant or 
sporophyte and the gametophyte, the latter concealed within the 
megaspore of the sporophyte. 

5. Both develop seeds with one or two seed coats. 

6. In both groups there is developed from the fertilized egg an 
embryo which lies within the cavity of the megaspore. 

7. In both there exists a root and a stem pericambium. 

8. Both produce collateral vascular bundles. Very rarely do we 
meet with concentric bundles in the stem or leaf of Angiosperms. 

FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND 

ANGIOSPERMS 

1. The flowers of Gymnosperms are often monoecious or dioecious 
but very rarely hermaphrodite as in Welwitchia, whereas those of 
Angiosperms are usually hermaphrodite, rather rarely monoecious, 
still more rarely dioecious. 

2. In the Gymnosperms the sporophylls are usually inserted 
either spirally or in whorls around a distinctly elongated axis, 
whereas in Angiosperms the sporophylls are condensed to short 
whorls or spirals set around a shortened axis, the floral axis or recep- 
tacle, torus or thalamus, or, as in the more modified Angiosperms, 
the floral axis may even become hollow. 

3. In Gymnosperms the microsporophylls or stamens are usually 
sessile, whereas in Angiosperms the microsporophylls are nearly 
always stalked. Rarely do we find sessile anthers among Angio- 


GYMNOSPERMS VS. ANGIOSPERMS 


37 


sperms, an instance of this being seen in Mistletoe (Viscum) where 
the anthers are set on the staminal leaf. 

4. In Gymnosperms there is a traceable prothallus or gametophyte 
plant that later becomes the so-called “endosperm” of the gymno- 
sperm, whereas in Angiosperms no recognizable prothallus has been 
proven to exist. 

5. The stored food tissue in Gymnosperm seeds is prothallial tis- 
sue loaded with starch, etc., whereas in Angiosperm seeds the stored 
food tissue (endosperm) is a special formation after fertilization. 

6. Angiosperms bear naked ovules and seeds while Gymnosperms 
bear covered ones. 

7. In Gymnosperms there are distinct recognizable archegonia 
formed on or imbedded in the prothallus, whereas in Angiosperms 
there are no distinct archegonia, only an isolated egg or eggs. 

8. In Gymnosperms there are not infrequently found several 
embryos from one fertilized egg. This condition is called poly- 
embryony. Polyembryony is unknown in Angiosperms, only a false 
polyembryony being noticed. 

9. In Gymnosperms the secondary xylem (wood) tissue of roots, 
stems and leaves consists either of punctated or scalariform cells, 
whereas in Angiosperms the secondary wood tissue may be varied 
in structural aspect. 


CHAPTER V 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 

Vegetable Cytology treats of plant cells and their contents. 

THE PLANT CELL AS THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT 

Schleiden, in 1838, showed the cell to be the unit of plant structure. 
The bodies of all plants are composed of one or more of these funda- 
mental units. Each cell consists of a mass of protoplasm which 
may or may not have a cell wall surrounding it. While most plant 
cells contain a nucleus and some contain a number of nuclei, the 
cells of the blue-green algae and most of the bacteria have been 
found to lack definitely organized structures of this kind but rather 
contain chromatin within their protoplasm in a more or less diffuse 
or loosely aggregated condition. 

A TYPICAL PLANT CELL 

If we peel off a portion of the thin colorless skin or epidermis from 
the outer convex surface of an onion bulb scale, mount in water and 
examine under the microscope, we find it to be composed of a large 
number of similar cells which are separated from one another by 
means of lines, the bounding cell walls. Under high power each of 
these cells will exhibit the following characteristics: 

An outer wall, highly refractile in nature and composed of cellulose 
which surrounds the living matter or protoplasm. This wall is not 
living itself but is formed by the living matter of the cell. Some- 
where within the protoplasm will be noted a denser-looking body. 
This is the nucleus. Within the nucleus will be seen one or more 
smaller highly refractile and definitely circumscribed bodies, the 
nucleolus or nucleoli. The protoplasm of the cell outside of the 
nucleus is called the “cytoplasm.” It will be seen to be clear and 

38 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


39 


granular-looking. Within the cytoplasm will be observed a number 
of clear spaces. These are vacuoles and because they are filled with 
cell sap (water with nutrient substances in solution) are called “ sap 
vacuoles 

Protoplasm is in intimate relation to water. The reaction of the 
cytoplasm to a bounding film of water between it and the cell wall 
forms the outer plasma membrane or ectoplasm, a clear homogeneous 
outer band of cytoplasm; the reaction of cytoplasm to the water 
within the sap vacuoles forms the vacuolar membranes; the reaction 
of the dense protoplasm of the nucleus to the water in the cytoplasm 
around it forms the nuclear membrane. Upon mounting another 
portion of epidermis in iodine solution, removing the excess of stain 
and adding a drop of sulphuric acid and then examining under high 
power, we note that the cell walls of cellulose are stained a deep blue. 
A yellow line is evident in the middle of each cell wall and separates 
each cell from its bounding cells. This fine is the middle lamella 
which is composed largely of calcium pedate. 


PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 

Protoplasm, or living matter, is the more or less semi-fluid, viscid, 
foamy, and granular substance in which life resides. It is the 
“physical basis of life.” 

The peculiar properties which distinguish protoplasm from non- 
living matter are as follows: 

1. Structure. — Protoplasm invariably exhibits structure. No por- 
tion of it, however small, has been found to be homogeneous. Each 
advance in microscopical technique reveals new complexities. The 
protoplasm of a single cell, far from being a single unit, must rather 
be looked upon as a microcosm. 

2. Metabolism. — Perhaps the most significant peculiarity of living 
matter is found in its instability and the chemical changes which 
continually go on within it. It is constantly wasting away, and as 
constantly being built up. These losses and gains are not upon the 
exterior surface, but throughout its mass. Its growth and renewal 
are by intussusception, or the taking in of new particles and storing 
them between those already present. A bit of protoplasm may re- 


40 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


tain its identity while all the matter of which it is composed is 
changed over and over. It is like a whirlpool or wave in a river 
which remains the same while the water of which it is composed 
changes continually. Metabolism has been aptly defined by Huxley 
as the whirlpool character of the organism. 

3. Reproduction.- — Protoplasm also shows a very remarkable 
ability to increase and to give off detached portions which retain 
the infinitely complex peculiarities and properties of the original. 
The process, moreover, may be continued indefinitely. 

Other physiological characteristics might be added, but the above 
are mentioned as the most satisfactory criteria by which living may 
be distinguished from non-living matter. 

PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS 

Protoplasm consists of four well-differentiated portions: 

(a) Cytoplasm, or the foamy, often granular matrix of protoplasm 
outside of the nucleus. 

(b) Nucleus or Nucleoplasm, a denser region of protoplasm con- 
taining chromatin, a substance staining heavily with certain basic 
dyes. 

( c ) Nucleolus, a small body of dense protoplasm within the 
nucleus. 

(d) Plastids, composed of plastid plasm, small discoid, spheroidal, 
ellipsoidal or ribbon-shaped bodies scattered about in the cytoplasm. 
Sometimes, as in the cells of lower plants like the Spirogyra, plastids 
are large and are then called chromatophores. 

According to the position of the cells in which plastids occur and 
the work they perform, they differ in color, viz.: 

Leucoplastids are colorless plastids found in the underground 
portions of a plant and also in seeds, and other regions given up to 
the storage of starch. Their function is to build up reserve starch 
from sugar and other carbohydrates as well as to change the reserve 
starch back into sugar when it is needed for the growth of the plant. 
They are only evident after properly fixing and staining cells con- 
taining them. 

Chloroplastids are plastids found in cells exposed to light and con- 
tain the green pigment, chlorophyll. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


41 


Chromoplastids are plastids found in cells independent of their 
relation to light or darkness and contain a yellow, orange or red 
pigment called chromophyll. 


Fig. 13. — A, embryonic cells from onion root tip; d, plasmatic membrane; c, cy- 
toplasm; a, nuclear membrane enclosing the thread-like nuclear reticulum; b, 
nucleolus; e , plastids (black dots scattered about). B, older cells farther back 
from the root tip. The cytoplasm is becoming vacuolate; /, vacuole. C, a cell 
from the epidermis of the mid-rib of Tradescantia zebrina, in its natural condi- 
tion on the right, and plasmolyzed by a salt solution on the left; g, space left by 
the recedence of the cytoplasm from the wall; the plasma membrane can now be 
seen as a delicate membrane bounding the shrunken protoplast. All highly mag- 
nified. (Stevens.) 

CELL FORMATION AND REPRODUCTION 

The cells of plants have all been derived from preexisting cells. 
In the bacteria and many other low forms of plant life, the division 
of the cell always results in reproduction; in higher forms, however, 
it merely increases the size of the individual and so is a phenomenon 
of growth. 


( 


42 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


There are two kinds of cells formed by plants, viz.: asexual and 
sexual. Both of these are endowed with the possibilities of repro- 
duction, although the former are frequently limited to the process 
of growth. 

Reproduction is the power possessed by an organism of giving rise 
to new individuals. This may take place through the agency of 
either asexual or sexual cells and is accordingly asexual or sexual in 
character. Whenever a union of cells or their protoplasmic con- 
tents takes place the process is called “sexual reproduction;” if, 
however, there is a mere separation of a cell or cells from an indi- 
vidual which later form a new organism, the process is termed 
“asexual or vegetative reproduction.” 

There are four modes of asexual reproduction, viz.: Fission, 
Gemmation, Free Cell Formation and Rejuvenescence. 

Fission. — This is the separation of a cell into two equal halves, 
each of which may grow to the size of the original parent cell from 
which it was derived. Fission is seen in the reproduction of bac- 
teria, growth of many algae and the formation of tissues of higher 
plants. 

Gemmation or Budding. — This is the method of reproduction 
common among yeasts. The cell forms a protuberance called a 
bud which increases in size until it equals the size of the cell which 
formed it and then becomes detached, although frequently not until 
it has developed other buds and these still others. 

Free Cell Formation. — This is a type of reproduction in which the 
nucleus and protoplasm become separated into two or more masses 
each of which forms a cell wall about itself. Seen in formation of 
ascospores within ascus of Ascomycetes and spores within spore cases 
of molds. 

Rejuvenescence. — In this mode of reproduction the protoplasm 
of the cell becomes rounded out, escapes by rupture of the cell wall, 
forms cilia and moves about as a zoospore. Later it looses its cilia, 
develops a cell wall and passes into a resting condition. Under 
favorable circumstances it grows into a new organism. It is found 
in CEdogonium, Ectocarpus, etc. 

There are two kinds of sexual reproduction, viz. : Conjugation and 
Fertilization. In both of these the sexual cells called gametes or 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


43 


their nuclei come together and their protoplasm blends to form a 
new cell. This is the common method seen in higher plants. 

Conjugation. — A union of two gametes, alike in character, the 
product being a zygote or zygospore. This method of reproduction is 
seen in the molds, Spirogyra, Zygnema and Diatoms. 

Fertilization. — A union of two unlike gametes or their nuclei, the 
product being an oospore. One gamete, the male sexual cell, is 
smaller and active while the other, the female sexual cell is larger 
and passive. This process is seen among the higher and many of 
the lower plants.' 

INDIRECT NUCLEAR DIVISION (MITOSIS OR KARYOKINESIS) 

This is the general method of division seen in the formation of 
tissues of higher plants. 

The process begins in the nucleus and ends with the formation of 
a cell wall dividing the new-formed cells. 

When we examine a cell in its resting stage we find the nucleus 
more or less spherical in shape, surrounded by a nuclear membrane 
and containing a nuclear network, nuclear sap and one or more 
nucleoli. The nuclear network consists of a colorless network of 
linin adhering to which are numerous minute granules called chro- 
matin which take the stain of a basic dye. Surrounding the nucleus 
is the cytoplasm. 

As the cell commences to divide, the nucleus elongates and the 
linin threads of the nuclear reticulum shorten, drawing the chro- 
matin granules together into a thickened twisted chromatic thread. 
This thread splits transversely and thus becomes divided into a 
number of rods termed chromosomes. Each of these then splits into 
two longitudinal halves that may be termed the daughter-chromo- 
somes. They lie within the nuclear cavity united by delicate threads. 
There now begins a phenomenon concerned with the cytoplasm 
which is primarily a process of spindle formation. The granular 
cytoplasm accumulates at the poles of the elongated nucleus forming 
the cytoplasmic caps. Presently it begins to show a fibrillar struc- 
ture, the threads extending outward around the periphery of the 
nucleus forming an umbrella-like arrangement of fibers from both 


44 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 14. — Semi-diagrammatic representation of nuclear and cell-division, a, 
resting cell ready to begin division; b, the nuclear reticulum is assuming the form 
of a thickened thread, and the cytoplasm at opposite poles is becoming thread- 
like to form the spindle fibers; c, the nuclear thread has divided longitudinally 
through the middle, and the spindle fibers have become more definite; d, the nu- 
clear membrane and the nucleolus have disappeared, and the nuclear thread has 
become segmented into chromosomes which are assembling at the equator of the 
cell. All of the phases of division thus far are called prophases, e, the metaphase, 
where the longitudinal halves of the chromosomes are being drawn apart pre- 
paratory to their journey toward the opposite poles; /, the anaphase, or move- 
ment of the chromosomes toward the poles, is about completed, connecting 
fibers extend from pole to pole; g, telophase where the chromosomes have begun 
to spin out in the form of a nuclear reticulum. The connecting fibers have begun 
to thicken in the equatorial plane; h, the connecting fibers have spread out and 
come into contact with the wall of the mother cell in the equatorial plane, and 
the thickening of the fibers throughout this plane has made a complete cell plate 
within which the dividing wall will be produced; i, a nuclear membrane has been 
formed about each daughter nucleus, and the dividing cell-wall is completed. 
The two daughter cells are now ready to grow to the size of the parent cell in a, 
when the daughter nuclei will appear as does the nucleus there. All highly mag- 
nified. (Stevens.) 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


45 


cytoplasmic caps. With the formation of fibers comes a breaking 
down of the nuclear membrane and in consequence the fibers enter 
the nuclear cavity and organize the spindle. Some of the fibers 
become attached to the split chromosomes and push, draw or pull 
them to the equatorial plate, halfway between the poles. Mean- 
while the nucleolus disappears. As the chromosomes line up at the 
equatorial plate their daughter halves are drawn apart in V-shaped 
fashion. The split extends and eventually one daughter-chromo- 
some is drawn to one pole and the remaining half to the other. At 
the respective poles the daughter chromosomes form a dense com- 
pact knot. A cell membrane, composed of material contributed 
largely through the shrinking of the spindle fibers, is now formed 
through the middle of the spindle. This soon splits to form a thin 
vacuole lying between the two membranes (the plasma membranes). 
Presently there appears within the vacuole and between the mem- 
branes a carbohydrate substance. On either side of this deposit the 
plasma membranes form a cellulose membrane. The flattened 
vacuole extends toward the periphery and ultimately a complete 
cell wall is formed. 

The dense compact knots of chromosomes at the poles of the 
spindle, that are to form the daughter-nuclei, now begin to expand 
and clear mesh-like spaces to appear between the expanding threads. 
As this process advances the chromosome substance becomes dis- 
tributed throughout the nuclear cavity. It is soon possible to dis- 
tinguish the chromatin from the linin. Eventually an irregular 
network of linin carrying chromatin granules is formed through the 
area of the nucleus. A nuclear membrane also is formed and the 
nucleolus reappears. The spindle fibers disappear. The daughter- 
nuclei increase in size and each daughter-cell formed by this process 
now assumes the resting stage. 

NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL CONTENTS 

i. Sugars. — Sugars comprise a group of crystalline substances 
found in the cell sap of many plants either free or in combination 
with glucosides. They may be divided into two main groups: 
monosaccharoses and disaccharoses. To the former belong simple 


46 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


sugars containing two to nine atoms of carbon, which are known 
respectively as bioses, trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, etc. Of 
these the hexoses (C 6 Hi20 6 ) are the most important and of wide 
distribution. Examples of the hexoses found in drug plants are: 
(a) dextrose (grape sugar), found in the leaves, stems, fruits, sprout- 
ing grains and nectaries of flowers of nearly all plants; ( b ) fructose 
(levulose or fruit-sugar), commonly associated with dextrose; (c) 
d-mannose, found in the saccharine exudation of the Manna Ash 
( Fraxinus Ornus ); and ( d ) sorbinose, found in ripe Mountain Ash 
berries. Upon evaporating the sap or treating the parts containing 
these principles with alcohol they can be crystallized out. 

Fliickiger’s Micro-chemic Test for the determination of different 
kinds of sugars: Dissolve a small portion of copper tartrate in a 
drop of sodium hydrate on a glass slide; in this place the section and 
put on the cover slip. If fructose is present cuprous oxide crystals 
will at once be formed without warming. If grape sugar is also 
present a gentle warming will produce another crop of reddish-yellow 
crystals. If dextrin be present continued heating will still further 
augment the number of crystals. Cane sugar and mannite, on the 
other hand, will respond negatively to this test. The zymase of 
yeasts is capable of fermenting dextrose, levulose and d-mannose 
forming carbon dioxide and alcohol. Sorbinose is claimed to be 
non-fermentable. 

The disaccharoses having the chemical formula of C12H22O11 in- 
clude sucrose, maltose, trehalose, melibiose, touranose and agavose. 
Of these sucrose is the most important. It is found in the stems of 
sugar cane, sorghum, corn and Mexican grass; in many fleshy roots 
notably the sugar beet; in the sap of the sugar maple and various 
palms including Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sylvestris, Arenga saccharif- 
era; in various fruits as apples, cherries, figs, etc., in the nectaries 
of certain flowers ; in honey ; and in a number of seeds. It crystallizes 
in monoclinic prisms or pyramids. When sections of plant parts 
containing cane sugar are placed for a few seconds in a saturated 
solution of copper sulphate, then quickly rinsed in water, trans- 
ferred to a solution of 1 part of KOH in 1 part of water, and heated 
to boiling, the cells containing the sugar take on a sky-blue color. 
Inverlase of the yeast reduces cane sugar to dextrose and levulose 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


47 


and zymase of the same plant ferments these forming carbon dioxide 
and alcohol. 

Maltose is found in the germinating grains of barley and other 
cereals as a product of the action of the ferment diastase on starch. 
It reduces Fehling’s solution forming cuprous oxide but one-third 
less with equal weights. 

Trehalose or mycose is found in ergot, Boletus edulis, the Oriental 
Trehala and various other fungi. 

Melibiose is formed with fructose upon hydrolyzing the trisac- 
charose melitose which occurs in the molasses of sugar manufacture 
and in Australian manna. 

Touranose is produced upon hydrolyzing melizitose, a trisaccha- 
rose which occurs in Persian manna, and 

Agavose is found in the cell sap of the American Century Plant, 
Agave americana. 

2 . Starch. — Starch is a carbohydrate having the chemical formula 
of (C 6 Hio 0 5 )„ which is generally found as the first visible product 
of photosynthesis in most green plants. It is found in the chloro- 
plasts and chromatophores of green parts in the form of minute 
granules. This kind of starch is known as Assimilation Starch. 
Assimilation starch is dissolved during darkness within the chloro- 
plasts by the action of ferments and passes into solution as a glucose 
which is conveyed downward to those parts of the plant requiring 
food. In its descent some of it is stored up in medullary ray cells, 
and in various parts of the xylem, phloem, pith and cortex in the 
form of small grains. Considerable, however, is carried down to 
the underground parts such as rhizomes, tubers, corms, bulbs 
or roots where the leucoplasts store it in the form of larger-sized 
grains called Reserve Starch. This type of starch is generally 
characteristic for the plant in which it is found. It constitutes 
stored-up food for the plant during that period of the year when the 
vegetative processes are more or less dormant. 

Structure and Composition of Starch. — Starch grains vary in 
shape from spheroidal to oval to chonchoidal to polygonal. They are 
composed of layers of soluble carbohydrate material and probably 
other substances called u lamellce” separated from each other by a 
colloidal substance resembling a mucilage in its behavior toward 


48 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


aniline dyes. They contain a more or less distinct highly refractile 
point of origin or growth called the “ hilum,” which also takes the 
stain of an aniline dye. The layers of carbohydrate material stain 
variously, blue, indigo, purple, etc., with different strengths of 
iodine solutions. Each grain is covered with a stainable elastic 
membrane. 


Fig. 15. — Cell of Pellionia Daveauana, showing starch-grains. The black, 
crescent-shaped body on the end of each grain is the leucoplast. Greatly enlarged. 
(Gager.) 

Starch grains may be grouped, according to the condition in which 
they are found in the cells of storage regions into three kinds, viz.: 
simple starch grains, compound starch grains and fill starch grains. 

Simple starch grains are such as occur singly. Compound starch 
grains occur in groups of two, three, four, five, six or more and are 
designated as two, three, four, five, six, etc., compound, according 
to the number of grains making up the group. Fill starch grains 
are small grains filling up the spaces between the larger grains in 
storage cells. These are common in commercial starches. 

Method of Examining Reserve Starches.- — Many of the reserve 
starches are used commercially, such as potato, corn, rice, maranta, 
oat, wheat, sago, tapioca, etc., and it frequently becomes necessary 
for the microscopist to determine their purity or their presence in a 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


49 


sample of food or drug. The following characteristics should be 
noted in determining the identity or source of the starch. 

1. The shape of the grain. 

2. Whether simple or compound or both; if compound, the number 
or range in numbers of grains composing it. 

3. The size of the grain in microns. 

4. The position of the hilum, if distinct; whether central or excen- 
tric (outside of the center). 

5. The shape of the hilum and the degree to which it is often 
fissured. 

6. The nature of the lamellae, whether distinct or indistinct; if 
distinct whether concentric (surrounding the hilum) or eccentric 
(apparently ending in the margin and not surrounding the hilum), 
or both, as in potato starch. 

7. The color of the grains when stained with dilute iodine solu- 
tions; whether indigo, blue, purple, red or yellowish-red, etc. 

8. The appearance under polarized light. 

9. The temperature at which the paste is formed. 

to. The consistency of the paste. 

Characteristics of Important Commercial Starches 
Potato Starch ( Solatium tuberosum) Lamellie: concentric and eccentric. 

Mostly simple, conchoidal or ellip- Polarization cross very distinct; 


soidal, with occasional spheroidal 
and two- to three-compound grains. 


beautiful play of colors with 
selenite plate. 


Size: 5 to 125/1 


Maranta Starch ( Maranla 


Hilum: circular at smaller end of 
grain. 


arundinacea ) 


Fig. 16. — Potato Starch. ( X 250.) 
(Sayre.) 


Fig. 17. — Maranta Starch. (+250.) 
(Sayre.) 


4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SO 

Size: io to 6 sm- 
Hilum: a transverse or crescent- 
shaped cleft in center or near 
broad end of grain. 

Lamellae: usually indistinct. 
Polarization cross very distinct; fine 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Com Starch ( Zea Mays ) 
Polygonal to rounded, 
io to 35 ix. Most grains over 15/1 
in diameter. 

Simple. 


Fig. 18. — Corn Starch. ( X 500.) 

{Sayre.) 

Hilum: circular or a two- to five- 
rayed cleft. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct but no 
marked play of color with selenite 
plate. 

Rice Starch (Oryza sativa ) 

Polygonal. 

2 to 10 n in diameter. 

Simple or two- to many-compound. 


Fig. 19. — Rice Starch. ( X 250.) 
(Sayre.) 


Hilum: usually indistinct, occasion- 
ally a central cleft. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct but no 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Wheat Starch ( Triticum sativum ) 

Lenticular grains appearing elliptical 
shaped on edge view; simple. 

28 to 50^ in diameter. 

Hilum: central, appearing as dot, 
usually indistinct. 


Fig. 20. — Wheat Starch. ( X 250.) 
(Sayre.) 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross indistinct; no 
play of colors with selenite plate. 

Rye Starch ( Secale cereale ) 
Grains having a similar shape to 
those of wheat starch but many 
larger; simple. 

20 to 6oju in diameter. 

Hilum: a star-shaped central cleft. 
Lamellae: concentric. 

Polarization cross distinct. 

Buckwheat Starch (Fagopynnn 
esculentum) 

Grains simple and compound. 

Simple grains polygonal or rounded 
polygonal. 

Compound grains more or less rod- 
shaped. 

2 to 1 5 m in diameter. 

Hilum: central. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross distinct. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


51 


Cassava Starch ( Manihot 
utilissima ) 

Grains rounded, truncated on one 
side. 

Simple or two- to three- or four- to 
eight-compound. 

6 to 35 m in diameter. 

Hilum: central, circular or triangu- 
lar with radiating clefts frequently. 

Lamellae: indistinct. 

Polarization cross prominent. 

Leguminous Starch 

Ellipsoidal or reniform-shaped simple 
grains. 


50 to 100M in length. 

Hilum: central, elongated with 
branching clefts. 

Lamellae: distinct, concentric. 

Polarization crosses shaped thus,^ 

Canna Starch ( Canna edulis and other 
species of Canna) 

Broadly elliptical, flattened, with 
beak or obtuse angle at one end. 

50 to 1 3 5 m in length. 

Hilum: excentric near narrower end. 

Lamellae: concentric and excentric. 

Polarization cross very distinct; fine 
plav of colors with selenite plate. 


3. Inulin. — Inulin is a carbohydrate isomeric with starch which has 
the chemical formula of C12H20O10. It is found dissolved in the cell 
sap of many plants, especially those of the Composite. If pieces of 
a plant part containing this substance be placed directly in alcohol 
for at least a week, then sectioned and mounted in alcohol, sphaero- 
crystals of inulin will be seen applied to the walls of the cells. When 
these sections are treated with a 25 per cent, solution of alpha 
naphthol and 2 or 3 drops of strong H2SO4, the sphaerocrystals will 
dissolve with a violet color. Fehling’s solution is not reduced by 
inulin. 

4. Hesperidin. — Hesperidin is a glucoside having the chemical 
formula of C21H26O12. Like inulin it occurs in solution within the 
cell sap. It is found in abundance in the Rutaceae family but occurs 
in many other plants. If sections of alcoholic material containing 
this substance such as Buchu leaves or unripe orange peel, are 
mounted in alcohol and examined, sphaerocrystals will be seen. If 
these are then treated with a drop of alpha naphthol solution and 2 
or 3 drops of strong H2SO4, they dissolve with a yellow color. The 
same coloration is evident when 5 per cent, solution of KOH is 
substituted for the alpha naphthol and H2SO4. 

5. Strophanthin. — This is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of 
the endosperm of Strophanthus Kombe, S. hispidus and other species 
of Strophanthus. If sections of fresh Strophanthus seeds are 
mounted in a drop of water and then transferred to a drop of con- 


52 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


centrated H2SO4, the cells containing strophanthin will assume a 
bright green color. 

6. Salicin. — Salicin is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of the 
bark and leaves of the Willows and Poplars. Sections of these 
mounted in concentrated H2SO4 will show a red coloration in the 
cells containing this substance. If water be added a red powder is 
thrown down. 

7. Saponin, another glucoside, found in Soap Bark, Senega, 
Saponaria and other drugs also takes a red color with strong H2SO4. 

8. Coniferin is a glucoside, occurring in the cell sap of the spruce, 
pine, and other plants of the Coniferce. If sections containing it are 
first treated with a solution of phenol and then with sulphuric acid, 
the cells containing it take on a deep blue color. 

8. Digitoxin, a glucoside found in the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, 
is colored green with hydrochloric acid. 

The glucosides are very numerous. Those listed above represent 
but a few examples. They arise in the cell sap of plants containing 
them as products of constructive metabolism (anabolism) and are 
thought by many to have the function of protecting plants against 
the ravages of animals. Some are known to serve as reserve food. 
All glucosides are characterized by the property of being split up 
into glucose and other substances when acted upon by a ferment, 
dilute acids or alkalies. 

9. Alkaloids. — Chemically, these are basic carbonaceous amines 
which like glucosides are products of metabolism. Their method 
of formation in plants is uncertain. Some hold that they are kata- 
bolic products, resulting from the breaking down of tissues, while 
others believe them anabolic in character. They undoubtedly serve 
as defensive agents in plants containing them on account of their 
bitter taste and poisonous properties. 

Properties of Alkaloids 

Alkaloids are invariably found in combination with acids forming 
salts which dissolve in water or alcohol. They are composed of 
carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Some contain oxygen. They are 
precipitated from saline solutions by the addition of alkalies. They 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


S 3 


are mostly colorless and crystallizable. They can be precipitated 
by one or more of the following alkaloidal reagents: tannic acid, 
gold chloride, phospho-molybdic acid, picric acid and potassio- 
mercuric iodide. 

Examples of Alkaloids 

Strychnine. — This alkaloid, with a chemical formula of C21H22N2- 
O2, occurs in the seeds of Strychnos nux vomica, Strychnos Ignatii 
and other species of Strychnos. When sections of strychnine con- 
taining seeds, previously treated with petroleum ether and absolute 
alcohol, are mounted in a solution of 1 Gm. ammonium vanadate 
in 100 mils of sulphuric acid, they take on a violet-red color which 
later changes to brown. 

Veratrine. — This alkaloid, with a composition of C37H53NO11, is 
found in various parenchyma cells of Veratrum album. If sections 
of the rhizome or roots are mounted in 2 drops of water and a drop 
of concentrated H2SO4 and examined microscopically on a glass 
slide, the cell contents and walls of the cells which contain this sub- 
stance first take a yellow color which soon changes to an orange-red 
and then to a violet. 

Nicotine. — This is a volatile alkaloid having the formula of 
C10H14N2 which is found in the Nicotiana genus of the Nightshade 
family. Sections of tobacco leaves or stems mounted in dilute 
Lugol’s solution will show first a carmine-red color and then a red- 
dish-brown precipitate which in time loses its color. 

Caffeine. — This alkaloid, with a formula of C8H10N4O2 + H 2 0 , 
occurs in Thea, Coffea, Cola, Sterculea, Ilex and Neea. If thin sec- 
tions containing it are placed on a glass slide in 2 or 3 drops of con- 
centrated hydrochloric acid and gently heated and then 2 or 3 drops 
of gold chloride solution are added, the sections then pushed to the 
side and the liquid allowed to evaporate, slender yellowish branch- 
ing needles of caffeine gold chloride will be seen to separate. 

Cocaine.-^This narcotic alkaloid, having the formula C17H21NO4, 
is found in the leaves of Erythroxylon Coca and E. Truxillense. If 
sections of these leaves are prepared in the same manner as indicated 
for those containing Caffeine, but platinum chloride solution substi- 


54 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


tuted for that of gold chloride, large feathers or plumes of cocaine- 
chloro-platinate will be seen separating. 

Aconitine 1C33H43NO12) is found in various parts of Aconitum 
Napellus. It is particularly abundant in the tuberous root of this 
plant. If sections of aconite root are treated on a glass slide with 
solution of potassium permanganate, a red precipitate of aconitine 
permanganate will appear in the cells containing this alkaloid. 

Colchicine (C22H 2 5N0 6 ).- — -This alkaloid occurs in the corm and 
seeds of Colchicum aulumnale. It is very abundant in the cells 
surrounding the fibro-vascular bundles of the corm. If a section of 
either corm or seed be treated with a mixture of 1 part of H2SO4 
and 3 parts of H2O, the cells containing colchicine will be colored 
yellow. If a crystal of KNO3 then be added the color will change 
to a brownish-violet. 

10. Gluco -alkaloids. — These are compounds intermediate in 
nature between alkaloids and glucosides having characteristics of 
each. To this group belongs solanine (C28H47NO11) which is found 
in Solanum nigrum, Solarium Dulcamara, Solarium carolinense and 
other species of the Solanacece. When sections of those plant parts 
which contain this constituent are mounted in a solution of 1 part 
of ammonium vanadate in 1000 parts of a mixture of 49 parts of 
sulphuric acid with 18 parts of water, the cells containing solanin 
take on a yellow color which changes successively to orange, various 
shades of red, blue-violet, grayish-blue and then disappears. 

n. Asparagine (C4H 8 N 2 + H 2 0 ). — This is an amino compound 
of crystalline nature which occurs widely in the plant kingdom. It 
has been found in certain of the slime molds and fungi, in the roots 
of Althcea officinalis and Atropa belladonna, in young shoots of 
Asparagus, in the seeds of Castanea dentata, in the tubers of Solanum 
tuberosum and varieties of Dahlia, and is known to play an important 
part in metabolism. Stevens claims that proteids are reduced for 
the most part to asparagine during seed germination. 1 If thick sec- 
tions are cut from a plant part containing this substance and 
mounted in alcohol, rhombohedral crystals of asparagin in the form 
of plates will be deposited upon the evaporation of the alcohol. If 
to these a few drops of a saturated solution of asparagine are added 
1 Stevens’ Plant Anatomy, 3d Edit., p. 189. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


55 


the crystals already formed will increase in size. To get satisfactory 
results the saturated solution must be of the same temperature as 
the mount. 

12. Calcium Oxalate. — This substance occurs in many plants 
always in the form of crystals. It is apparently formed by the reac- 
tion of salts of calcium, which have found their way into the cell 
sap from the soil, with oxalic acid which is manufactured by the 
plant. Calcium oxalate crystals dissolve readily in mineral acids 
without effervescence. They are insoluble in acetic acid or water. 
These crystals are classified according to form and belong either to 
the monoclinic or tetragonal system. 

Crystals belonging to the Monoclinic System and Examples of Drugs 
Containing them: 

1. Solitary — Hyoscyamus, Acer Spicalum, Viburnum Prunifolium. 

2. Rosette Aggregates — Althaea, Gossypii Cortex, Stramonium, 
Granatum, Rheum, Foeniculum. 

3. Columnar (Styloids) — Quillaja. 

4. Raphides — Convallaria, Sarsaparilla, Veratrum, Scilla, 

Phytolacca. 

5. Micro-crystals (Crystal sand) — Belladonnae Radix, Cinchona, 
Stramonium. 

6. Crystal Fibers — Cascara Sagrada, Prunus Virginiana, 

Glycyrrhiza. 

7. Membrane Crystals — Aurantii Dulcis Cortex, Limonis Cortex, 
Condurango. 

Solitary crystals, usually in the form of rhombohedra, occasionally 
in twin crystals, occur as sharp angular bodies each one often com- 
pletely filling up the lumen of a cell. 

Rosette aggregates consist of numerous small prisms or pyramids, 
or hemihedral crystals arranged around a central axis, appearing 
like a rosette or star. 

Columnar crystals or styloids are elongated prisms. 

Raphides are groups of acicular or needle-shaped crystals which 
occur in long thin-walled cells containing mucilage. They are 
more frequently found in Monocotyledons than in any other plant 
group. Micro-crystals (sphenoidal micro-crystals or crystal sand) 
are minute arrow-shaped or deltoid forms completely filling the 


56 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


parenchyme cells in which they occur and giving these a grayish- 
black appearance. 

Crystal fibers are longitudinal rows of superimposed parenchyme 
cells each of which contains a single monoclinic prism or rosette 
aggregate. Crystal fibers are found adjacent to sclerenchyme fibers 
such as bast or woody fibers. 

Membrane crystals are monoclinic prisms, each of which is sur- 
rounded by a wall or membrane. In the process of formation a 
crystal first is formed in the cell sap and then numerous oil globules 
make their appearance in the protoplasm surrounding it; later some 
of the walls of the cell grow around the crystal and completely 
envelop it. 

13. Cystoliths. — Cystoliths are clustered bodies formed by the 
thickening of the cell wall at a certain point and subsequent in- 
growth which latter forms a cellulose skeleton consisting of a stalk 
and body. Silica is subsequently deposited on the stalk while 
calcium carbonate is piled up on the body in layers forming an irreg- 
ular spheroidal or ellipsoidal deposit. These structures are abun- 
dantly found in the plants of the Nettle Family and constitute a 
leading peculiarity of the same. 

Hair cystoliths differ from the average type in that they are 
devoid of a stalk. Such are seen in the non-glandular hairs of 
Cannabis saliva. 

The calcium carbonate incrustation of a cystolith dissolves with 
effervescence on the addition of a mineral or organic acid. 

14. Silica. — Silica (Si 0 2 ) occurs in a number of plants either as 
an incrustation in the cell wall as in Diatoms, the Equisetinea and 
Graminece or more rarely in the form “silica bodies” such as are 
found in certain Palms, Orchids and Tristicha. It is insoluble in 
all the acids except hydroflouric. It may be obtained in pure form 
by placing tissue containing it in a drop or two of concentrated 
sulphuric acid and after a time treating with successively stronger 
solutions of chromic acid (starting with 25 per cent.) and then wash- 
ing with water and alcohol. 

15. Tannins. Tannins are amorphous substances occurring in 
plants having an astringent taste, and turning dark blue or green 
with iron salts. They occur in greatest quantity in the bark of 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


57 


exogens, and in gall formations. They are soluble in water, alcohol, 
glycerine, and a mixture of alcohol and ether. They are almost 
insoluble in absolute ether and chloroform. They give insoluble 
precipitates with organic bases such as alkaloids and with most of 
the salts of the heavy metals. 

According to their behavior with solution of iron chloride or 
other soluble iron salts two kinds of tannic acid are recognized: (a) 
a form of tannic acid giving a blue color, as that which is found in 
Rhus, Castanea, Granatum, Galla, etc.; ( b ) another tannic acid 
producing a green coloration, as that found in Krameria, Kino, 
Mangrove bark, Quercus, Catechu, etc. 

If sections are placed in a 7 per cent, solution of copper acetate 
for a week or more, then placed on a slide in 0.5 per cent, aqueous 
solution of ferric chloride, and after a while washed with water and 
mounted in glycerin, an insoluble brownish precipitate will be pro- 
duced in those cells containing tannin. 

16. Proteins. — Proteins are complex nitrogenous substances 
forming the most important of the reserve foods of plants. They are 
found in all the living and many of the dead cells of plants although 
most abundant in seeds. Protoplasm, itself, is composed largely 
of these substances. They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen and sulphur, and many contain in addition phosphorus. 
They are formed by the addition of nitrogen, sulphur and fre- 
quently phosphorus to elements of grape sugar. The nitrogen, 
sulphur and phosphorous elements are obtained from nitrates, 
sulphates and phosphates which are dissolved in the water taken 
in through the roots. The names of proteins recorded may be 
found by the hundreds. These are grouped into chemical classes, 
the most important of which from the standpoint of their occurrence 
in plants are the globulins, albumens, glulelins, nucleins, and gliadins. 
Of these the globulins are found most extensively. Globulins are 
insoluble in water but soluble in sodium chloride solutions. They 
do not coagulate upon the application of heat. 

Albumens are soluble in water and coagulate with heat. 

Glutelins are insoluble in water, sodium chloride solution and 
st rong alcohol. 


58 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Gliadins are nearly or wholly insoluble in water but soluble in 
70 to 90 per cent, alcohol. 

Nucleins are insoluble in water but soluble in alkaline solutions. 

The following tests are of value in determining the presence of 
proteins. 

Lugol’s solution stains proteins yellow or brown. 

Concentrated nitric acid stains proteins yellow. This color 
becomes deeper upon the addition of ammonia water. 

Million’s reagent stains proteins a brick-red. 

Concentrated solution of nickel sulphate colors proteins yellow 
or blue. 

If sections are placed for an hour or two in a solution of 1 Gm. of 
sodium phospho-molybdate in 90 Gm. of distilled water and 5 
Gm. of nitric acid, the proteid substances appear as yellowish 
granules. 

The globulins (phytoglobulins) frequently occur in bodies called 
“aleurone grains.” 

ALEURONE GRAINS 

Aleurone grains are small bodies found in seeds particularly those 
containing oil, and like starch grains often are characteristic of the 
genus or species. Each aleurone grain consists of a ground sub- 
stance (composed of amorphous proteid matter soluble in water, 
dilute alkali or acid), in which are usually embedded one or more 
phyto-globulins (insoluble in cold water, but soluble in less than 1 per 
cent, solution of an alkali, in dilute HCland acetic acid), one or more 
transparent globular globoids composed of Ca and Mg phosphate 
(insoluble in water and dilute potash solution but soluble in 1 per 
cent, acetic acid solution), and frequently a crystal of calcium 
oxalate, the whole being enclosed by a protoplasmic membrane (soluble 
in water). 

The proteins insoluble in the cell-sap water are made soluble for 
translocation by means of proteolytic enzymes which change them 
into proteoses and peptones. 

17. Mucilages and gums are those substances occurring in plants 
which are soluble in water or swell in it, and which are precipitated 
by alcohol. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


59 


Mucilage is formed in plants in several ways, viz.; either as a 
product of the protoplasm, as a disorganization product of some of 
the carbohydrates, as a secondary thickening or addition to the cell 
wall, or as a metamorphosis of it. In the first two cases the mucilage 
is called cell-content mucilage; in the last two, membrane mucilage. 

Mucilage is stored as reserve food in the tubers of Salep and 
many other Orchids and also in the seeds of some species of the 
Leguminosae. 

Cell-content mucilage has been found in the leaves of Aloe, 
the rhizomes of Triticum, the bulb scales of Squill and Onion and 
in certain cells of many other Monocotyledons especially those 
containing raphides. 

Membrane mucilage has been observed in Barosma, Ulmus, 
Althaea , Linum, Astragalus, and Acacia species, in the Blue-green 
Algae, and many of the Brown and Red Algae. 

When mucilage is collected in the form of an exudate from shrubs 
and trees it constitutes what is termed a gum. Many of these gums 
are used in pharmacy, medicine and the arts. The three most im- 
portant from a pharmaceutical standpoint are: Acacia, yielded by 
Acacia Senegal and other species of Acacia; Tragacanth, yielded by 
Astragalus gummifer and other Asiatic species of Astragalus; and 
Cherry Gum, obtained from Prunus Cerasus and its varieties. 

Mucilage may be demonstrated in plant tissues containing it by 
placing sections of these in a deep blue solution of methylene-blue 
in equal parts of alcohol, glycerin and water on a glass slide, allowing 
them to remain in the solution for several minutes, then draining 
off the stain and mounting in glycerin. Those cells containing muci- 
lage will exhibit bluish contents. 

1 8. Fixed Oils and Fats. — These are fatty acid-esters of glycerin 
which are found in the vacuoles of cells or formed within the cell 
walls from which they may be liberated as globules upon treating 
sections vvith chloral hydrate or sulphuric acid or heating them. 
They are quite soluble in ether, chloroform, benzol, acetone and 
volatile oils but' insoluble in water and with the exception of castor 
oil insoluble in alcohol. They are readily distinguished from the 
volatile oils in that they leave a greasy stain upon paper which does 
not disappear. Fixed oils and fats take a brownish to black color 


6o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


with osmic acid, a red color with alkannin or Sudan III and a blue 
color with cyanin. In Vaucheria, the Diatoms and a few of the 
other Thallophytes, fixed oil is formed in the chromatophores in- 
stead of starch as the first visible product of photosynthesis. In 
higher plants it is generally found in storage regions such as the 
parenchyma seeds, fruits and the medullary ray cells and paren- 
chyma of barks, roots and rhizomes. 

19. Volatile Oils. — These are volatile odoriferous principles found in 
various parts of numerous plants which arise either as a direct prod- 
uct of the protoplasm or through a decomposition of a layer of the 
cell wall which Tschirch designates a “ resinogenous layer.” They 
are readily distilled from plants together with watery vapor, are 
slightly soluble in water but very soluble in fixed oils, ether, chloro- 
form, glacial acetic acid, naphtha, alcohol, benzin and benzol. They 
leave a spot on paper which, however, soon disappears. They 
respond to osmic acid, alkannin, Sudan III, and cyanin stains 
similar to the fixed oils and fats. 

Volatile oils may be grouped into four classes: 

A. Pinenes or Terpenes, containing carbon and hydrogen and 
having the formula of Ci 0 H 16 . Examples: Oil of Turpentine and 
various other volatile oils occurring in coniferous plants. 

B. Oxygenated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 
Examples: Oil of cassia and other cinnamons. 

C. Nitrogenated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 
with nitrogen (from HCN). Example: Oil of Bitter Almonds. 

D. Sulphurated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. 
Example: Volatile oil of mustard. 

20. Resins, Oleoresins, Gum Resins, and Balsams. — These sub- 
stances represent products of metabolism in many plants which are 
formed either normally as Turpentine, Asafcetida, Mastiche, etc., 
or as a result of pathological processes through injury to the plant 
tissues as Styrax, Benzoin, Balsam of Tolu and Peru, etc. They 
occur usually in special cavities such as secretion cells, glands, or 
secretion reservoirs. 

Resins are insoluble in water but mostly soluble in alcohol. They 
combine with alkalies to form soap. Many of them are oxidized 
oils of plants. Examples: Guaiacum, Resina. 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


6l 

Oleoresins are mixtures of oil and resin. Examples: Terebin- 
thina, Terebinthina Canadensis. 

Gum resins are natural compounds of resin, gum and oil. Ex- 
amples: Asafoetida, Myrrha, Cambogia. 

Balsams are mixtures of resins with cinnamic or benzoic acid or 
both and generally a volatile oil. Examples: Balsamum Tolu- 
tanum, Styrax, Balsamum Peruvianum. 

If sections of a resin containing plant part are placed in a saturated 
aqueous solution of copper acetate for a week or two and mounted 
in dilute glycerin, the resin will be stained an emerald green. 

21. Pigments. — These are substances which give color to various 
plant parts in which they are found. They occur either in special 
protoplasmic structures as chloroplasts, chromoplasts or chroma- 
tophores or, dissolved in the cell sap. Of the pigments named the 
following will be considered: Chlorophyll, Xanthophyll, Chromo- 
phyll, Etiolin, Anthocyanin, Phycocyanin, Phycophaein and Phy- 
coerythrin. 

Chlorophyll is the yellowish-green pigment found in the chloro- 
plastids or chromatophores of leaves or other green parts of plants. 
Its composition is not definitely known although it yields products 
similar to the haemoglobin of the blood when decomposed. Iron 
is known to be essential to its formation. If an equal portion of 
xylene be added to a fresh alcoholic solution of chlorophyll and the 
mixture shaken, The chlorophyll in solution will break up into a 
yellowish and greenish portion. The greenish portion dissolves in 
the xylene which rises forming the upper stratum while the yellowish 
portion dissolves in the alcohol forming the lower stratum. To this 
isolated greenish portion of chlorophyll has been given the name of 
“chlorophyllin” while the yellowish portion has been designated 
“xanthophyll.” 

Chlorophyllin when examined spectroscopically produces absorp- 
tion bands in the red, orange, yellow and green of the spectrum, the 
broadest and most distinct band being in the red. 

Chromophyll also called “ xanthophyll ” and “carotin” is the yel- 
low or orange pigment found in chromoplastids. By some the 
term carotin is limited to the orange pigment found in the carrot. 
Sulphuric acid forms a blue color with chromophyll. 


62 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Etiolin is a pale yellow pigment which appears when green plants 
are kept for some time in darkness. It is probably identical with 
xanthophyll. 

Anthocyanins are applied to the blue, purple and red pigments 
which occur in the cell sap. The character of the color is claimed to 
be due to the alkalinity or acidity of the cell sap. 

Phycocyanin is the blue pigment found in the blue-green algae, 
associated with chlorophyll. It is soluble in water. 

Phycophaein is the brown pigment found in the brown algae. 

Phycoerythrin is the red pigment found in many of the red algae. 

The last two are always associated with chlorophyll but frequently 
conceal it. 

22. Latex. — This is an emulsion of varying composition and color 
found in special passages as latex cells and laticiferous vessels of 
many plants. It may contain starch, sugar, proteid, oil, enzymes, 
tannins, alkaloids, gum, resins, caoutchouc and mineral salts. The 
color may be absent as in Oleander; whitish as in Asclepias, Papaver, 
Hevea, and Apocynum; yellowish to orange as in Celandine, or red as 
in Sanguinaria. 

Chlor-zinc-iodine solution imparts to latex a wine red color. 

The latex of the following plants is of value to pharmacy and 
the arts: 

Papaver somniferum and its variety album which yields Opium. 
That from the unripe capsules is alone used for this drug. 

Palaquium Gutla which yields Gutta Percha. 

Hevea species, Ficus elaslica, Landolphia species, Castilloa elastica, 
Hancornia speciosa, Forsteronia species, Funlumia elastica and F. 
africana, Manihot species, Clitandra species and various species of 
Euphorbia furnish most of the Rubber of commerce. 

Lactuca virosa and other species of Lactuca yield the drug Lactu- 
carium. 

23. Enzymes. — An enzyme or ferment (according to Hepburn) 
is a soluble organic compound of biologic origin functioning as a 
thermolabile catalyst in solution. Ostwald has defined a catalyst 
as an agent which alters the rate of a reaction without itself entering 
into the final product, or which does not appear to take any imme- 
diate part in the reaction, remains unaltered at the end of the reac- 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


63 


tion and can be recovered again from the reaction product un- 
altered in quantity and quality. The biologic catalysts (enzymes) 
differ from the inorganic catalysts in that they are sensitive to heat 
and light. According to Haas and Hill they are destroyed at ioo°C. 
and most of them cannot be heated safely above 6o°C. Enzymes 
are soluble in water, glycerin or dilute saline solutions. They are 
stimulated to activity by substances known as “ activators ” and their 
activity is checked by other substances called “paralyzers.” Fre- 
quently the paralyzers consist of products of enzyme action. Cold 
inhibits and warmth accelerates enzyme action. Moisture must 
always be present for enzymic activity. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 

A. According to Difusibility through Cell Wall. 

Endocellular : Those that cannot diffuse out of the cell. Example : 

Zymase of Yeast. 

Extracellular: Those that can diffuse out of the cell. Example: 
Inver tase of Yeast. 

B. According to Kind of Substances Acted upon and Transformed. 

1. Carbohydrate enzymes: 

Diastase found in the germinating seeds of barley and other grains 
and in Aspergillus oryzce, etc., converts starch to maltose and dextrin. 

Invertase, secreted by yeasts, and found in younger parts of higher 
plants, transforms cane sugar, producing dextrose and levulose. 

Maltase, found in malt and Saccharomyces octosporus, transforms 
maltose to dextrose. 

Trehalase, found in Polyporus, hydrolyzes trehalose to dextrose. 

Cytase, found in Nux Vomica seeds, in barley, dates, etc., decom- 
poses hemicellulose and cellulose to galactose and mannose. 

Lactase, found in Kephir grains, hydrolyzes lactose to dextrose 
and galactose. 

Inulase, found in Compositaceous plants, transforms inulin to 
levulose. 

Zymase, found in yeast, hydrolyzes glucose (dextrose and levulose) 
to alcohol and carbon dioxide. 


64 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2. Fat and Oil Ferment : 

Lipase splits up fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerin. It is 
found in various mildews, molds and numerous oily seeds and other 
fatty-oil storage regions of higher plants. 

3. Proteinaceous Ferments : 

Pepsin converts proteids into proteoses and peptones. 

Trypsin, found in yeast, Boletus edulis, Amanita species, etc., 
resolves proteins to peptones and amino-acids. 

Bromelin, found in the fruit of the Pineapple and Papayin (Pa- 
pain), found in the latex of the fruit of the Papaw, act similarly to 
trypsin. 

Nepenthin, found in the pitchers of Nepenthes species, acts simi- 
larly to pepsin. 

4. Glucoside Ferments : 

Emulsin (synaptase), found in the seeds of the Bitter Almond, 
Cherry Laurel leaves, in the barks of the Wild Black Cherry and 
Choke Cherry and in other Rosaceous plant parts, in Manihot 
utilissima, Polygala species, etc., hydrolyzes the glucoside present 
(either amygdalin or 1-mandelonitrile glucoside) to hydrocyanic 
acid, benzaldehyde and glucose. 

Myrosin (myronase), found in the seeds of Brassica nigra and other 
members of the Cruciferce, converts the glucoside, Sinigrin, into allyl- 
iso-sulphocyanide and glucose. 

Rhamnase, found in Rhamnus Frangula and probably other species 
of Rhamnus, hydrolyzes the glucoside frangulin to rhamnose and 
emodin. 

Gaultherase, found in Gaultheria procumbens and other Erica- 
ceous plants, resolves the glucoside, gaultherin, to methyl-salicylate 
and glucose. 

CELL WALLS 

The cell walls of plants make up the plant skeleton. They are all 
formed by the living contents of the cells (protoplasts) during cell- 
divisions. In most plants the cell wall when first formed consists of 
cellulose, (CbHjoOs)*, a carbohydrate, or closely allied substances. It 
may remain of such composition or become modified to meet certain 


VEGETABLE CYTOLOGY 


65 


functions required of it. Thus, in the case of outer covering cells as 
epidermis and cork, whose function is that of protecting the under- 
lying plant units, the walls become infdtrated with cutin and suberin, 
waxy-like substances, which make them impermeable to water and 
gases as well as protect them against easy crushing. Again, in the 
case of stone cells and sclerenchyme fibers whose function is that of 
giving strength and support to the regions wherein found, the walls 
become infiltrated with lignin which increases their strength, hard- 
ness, and in the case of sclerenchyme fibers, their elasticity also. 
Moreover, in the case of the cells comprising the testa or outer seed 
coat of the pumpkin, squash, mustard and flax, etc., whose function 
is that of imbibing quantities of water, the walls undergo a muci- 
laginous modification. 

Growth in Area and Thickness. — The cell wall when first formed 
is limited in both extent and thickness. As the protoplast within 
enlarges new particles are placed within the wall by the process called 
intussusception. This increases its area. New particles, also, are 
deposited on its surface which gradually increases its thickness. 
The latter process is known as growth by apposition. 


5 


66 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Various Kinds of Cell Walls and Behavior of Each to 
Micro-Chemic Reagents 


Nature of wall 

Where found 

Reagent and behavior toward same 

Cellulose 

Parenchyme cells, tri- 
chomes such as 
cotton, etc. 

Cuoxam dissolves it. Chlorzinc- 
iodine solution imparts a blue or violet 
color. Iodine solution followed by 
sulphuric acid colors it blue. 

■ 

Lignocellulose 
(Lignified wall). 

Woody parts of 
plants, such as stem 
cells, bast fibers, 
wood fibers, etc. 

Phloroglucin with HC 1 imparts a red 
color except to bast fibers of flax. 
Corallin-soda solution imparts pink 
color. Aniline sulphate with H2SO4 
colors it a golden-yellow. Chlorzinc- 
iodine imparts a yellow color. 

Reserve cellulose 

Found in certain seeds 
such as nux vomica, 
ivory nut, date, cof- 
fee, etc. 

As for cellulose. 

Mucilaginous 
modification of 
cellulose. 

In various parts of 
plants. 

Alcoholic or glycerin solution of meth- 
ylene-blue imparts a blue color. 

Suberized walls. . 

In cork, wounded 
areas of plants, endo- 
dermis. 

Alcoholic extract of chlorophyll in the 
dark imparts a green color. Alcannin 
and Sudan III impart a red colora- 
tion. Converted into yellowish drop- 
lets and granular masses upon heating 
with a strong solution of KOH. 

Cutinized walls. . 

Forming outer walls 
of many epidermal 
cells. * 

As for suberized walls. 

Callus of sieve 
plates. 

Silicified walls. . . 

Plates of sieve tubes. 

Epidermis of Equi- 
setaceae, Grammes, 
etc.; Diatoms. 

Corallin-soda solution imparts pink 
color. 

Soluble in hydrofluoric acid. 


CHAPTER VI 


PLANT TISSUES 

A tissue is an aggregation of cells of common source, structure 
and function in intimate union. 

THE TISSUES OF SPERMATOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES 

The tissues of seed plants and pteridophytes are all derived from 
a fertilized egg (oospore) which has undergone repeated divisions. 
At first either an apical cell arises or a mass of cells is formed which 
are essentially alike, but gradually we find that a division of labor has 
become operative setting aside many different groups of cells, each 
group of which has its particular role to perform in the economy of 
the whole. Each group of cells similar in source, structure and 
function is called a tissue. The tissues found in higher plants range 
from those whose component cells are more or less rounded, in a 
rapid state of division, and whose thin cellulose cell walls enclose 
a mass of protoplasm devoid of vacuoles or with exceeding small 
ones to those whose cells through various physical and chemical 
factors become compressed, elongated, and highly modified in respect 
to their contents and walls. 

As was shown by Hanstein , 1 the embryo of Angiosperms, while 
still constituted of only a few cells in the process of division, becomes 
differentiated into three layers of cells which differ in their arrange- 
ment and direction of division; these were called by him, Dermatogen , 
Periblem and Plerome. In roots a fourth layer of cells is sometimes 
evident at the apex. This was termed by Janczewski 2 the Calyptro- 
gen layer. These primary layers or groups of cells are called primary 
meristems or generative tissues. They are composed of more or less 

1 Hanstein, “Die Scheitelzellgruppe im Vegetationspunkt der Phanerogamen,” 
Bonn, 1868. 

2 Am. Sci. Nat. 5 s6rie, tom. xx. 


67 


68 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


rounded cells having delicate cell walls of cellulose which enclose 
protoplasm and nucleus and wherever found in living embryos are in 
a rapid state of division. 

The generative tissues are found in the growing apices of plant 
organs such as root, stem and leaf apex. By the division and redivi- 
sions of their cells they give rise to the mature or adult tissues of 
plants. 

1. Dermatogen originates epidermal tissue and derivative struc- 
tures such as stomata, non-glandular and glandular hairs, glands, 
and cork cambium. 

2. Periblem originates cortex tissue, chlorophylloid cells (chlor- 
enchyma) colloid cells (collenchyma), strengthening cells (scleren- 
chyma), crystal cells (raphiderchyma) latex cells (lacterchyma), 
endodermis and cork cambium. 

3. Plerome originates fibro-vascular bundles, fundamental tissue, 
pericambium and cambium. 

According to structure the following tissues are found in various 


forms of 

higher plants: 


1. 

Meristem 

7. Cork 

2. 

Parenchyma 

8. Laticiferous tissue 

3- 

Collenchyma 

9. Cribiform or sieve tissue 

4- 

Sclerenchyma 

10. Tracheary tissue 

5- 

Epidermis 

n. Medullary rays 

6. 

Endodermis 


MERISTEM 

Meristem, frequently called embryonic tissue, is undifferentiated 
tissue composed of cells in the state of rapid division. It is found 
in the growing apices of roots, stems and leaves and is in these 
regions called primary meristem, since it is the first meristem to 
appear. Such meristem gives rise to the permanent or mature 
tissues of plants and retains the power of independent growth and 
capacity for division as long as the plant part survives which con- 
tains it. Meristem is also found in other regions of plant organs 
such as the cambium, cork cambium and pericambium and is there 
called secondary meristem. Secondary meristem loses with its de- 
velopment the power of division and independent growth. 


PLANT TISSUES 


69 


PARENCHYMA 

Parenchyma or Fundamental Tissue is the soft tissue of plants 
consisting of cells about equal in length, breadth and thickness 
(isodiametric) with thin cellulose cell walls enclosing protoplasm and 
a nucleus and frequently substances of a non-protoplasmic nature. 
There are four generally recognized types of parenchyma, viz. : 

O rd inary Parenchyma (S of t Groun d Tissue , F undamen tal Tissue ) . 
— Next to the meristem this is the least modified of all plant tissues. 
It is composed of thin-walled cells, commonly polyhedral or sphe- 
roidal in form and often of approximately the same length, breadth, 
and thickness (isodiametric), the cell walls are composed of cellu- 
lose which is usually unmodified. Protoplasm and a nucleus are 
always present, but in old cells are only seen as a thin layer pushed 
up against the cell wall. Ordinary Parenchyma may be seen 
composing the soft tissues of roots, stems, and barks. 

Assimilation Parenchyma (Chlorophyll or Chromophyll Paren- 
chyma, Chlorenchyma).— This form of parenchyma tissue is found 
in foliage leaves, floral leaves, in the outer region of young green 
stems and fruits. Its cells are thin walled and vary in shape from 
more or less isodiametric to irregular and elongated forms. The 
cells always contain chloroplasts or plastids in whose pores may be 
found some other coloring substance. 

Conducting Parenchyma. — This type of parenchyma functions 
in the rapid translocation of food materials to distant regions in the 
plant. It includes the wood parenchyma cells of the xylem which 
convey a portion of the crude sap (water with mineral salts in 
solution) and the phloem parenchyma (soft bast) which transports 
the elaborated sap (carbohydrate and proteid material in solution). 
Conducting parenchyma cells differ from those of ordinary paren- 
chyma in being usually more elongated and in conducting soluble 
food materials with greater celerity. 

Reserve Parenchyma. — This resembles ordinary parenchyma in 
many particulars of structure but differs from it mainly by its cells 
being filled with starch, protein crystals, or oil globules. It is 
usually found in seeds, fleshy roots, or underground stems such as 
tubers, corms, and bulbs. 


7 ° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Collenchyma. — This form of tissue is characterized by its cells 
being prismatic, more elongated than ordinary parenchyma, and 
thickened in their angles with a colloidal substance. The cells, 
like those of parenchyma tissue contain protoplasm and a nucleus, 
and frequently chloroplasts. Collenchyma is generally found 
underneath the epidermis, and gives strength to that tissue. It is 
frequently observed forming the “ribs” of stems and fruits of the 


Fig. 21. — Stone cells from different sources, i. From coffee; 2, 3, and 4, 
from stem of clove; 5 and 6, from tea leaf; 7, 8, and 9, from powdered star-anise 
seed. ( Stevens , after Moeller.) 

Umbelliferce and “ribs” of stems of the Labiates. In many leaves 
it has been found as the supporting and strengthening tissue between 
the stronger veins and the epidermis. 

Sclerenchyma or stony tissue comprises a variety of supporting 
elements having thickened cell walls composed of lignocellulose. 
When first formed these cells resemble those of ordinary parenchyma 
in having walls of pure cellulose, but later lignin becomes deposited 
on the inner surface of the walls in one or more layers. (Occasion- 
ally as in the rhizomes of Ginger no lignin is deposited on the walls 


PLANT TISSUES 


71 

of the sclerenchyma fibers). When sclerenchyma is composed of 
cells which are more or less isodiametric or moderately elongated, 
with thickened lignified walls and conspicuous pores, its elements 
are called Stone Cells. Stone cells are distributed in fruits, seeds 
and barks of many plants, rarely in woods. They have been found 
forming the gritty particles in the “flesh” of certain fruits as the 
Pear, the endocarp or stone region of drupaceous fruits as the Olive, 
Peach, Cubeb, Pepper, etc., the hard portions of seed coats as in 
Physostigma, Walnuts, etc. Each stone cell presents for examina- 
tion a cell wall of cellulose with one or several layers of lignin on its 
inner surface which surround a central lumen. The latter is in 
communication with radial pore canals leading outward to the 
middle lamella. Longitudinal pore canals are also evident. 

When sclerenchyma is composed of cells which are greatly elon- 
gated and more or less obtusely or taper ended, its component ele- 
ments are termed Sclerenchyma fibers. These fibers are frequently 
spindle-shaped, contain air and exhibit oblique slits in their walls. 
They are either polygonal, rectangular or somewhat rounded in trans- 
verse section. They occur in various parts of roots, stems, leaves, 
fruits and seeds as supporting elements. When sclerenchyma 
fibers occur in the xylem region of fibro-vascular bundles they are 
termed Wood Fibers; when they appear in the phloem region, Bast 
Fibers. 

EPIDERMIS 

Epidermis is the outer covering tissue of a plant and is protective 
in function. Its cells may be brick-shaped, polygonal, equilateral or 
wavy in outline. Their outer walls are frequently cutinized (infil- 
trated with a waxy-like substance called cutin). Among the epider- 
mal cells of leaves and young green stems may be found numerous 
pores or stomata (sing, stoma) surrounded by pairs of crescent- 
shaped cells, called guard cells. • The stomata are in direct commun- 
ication with air chambers beneath them which in turn are in com- 
munication with intercellular spaces of the tissue beneath. The 
function of the stomata is to give off watery vapor and take in or 
give off carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. In addition to stomata 
some leaves possess groups of water stomata which differ from trans- 


72 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


piration stomata in that they always remain open, are circular in out- 
line, give off water in droplets directly, and lie over a quantity of 
small-celled glandular material which is in connection with one or 
more fibro-vascular bundles. Examples: Leaves of Crassula, Saxi- 
fraga and Ficus. 

The epidermis of leaves, stems, fruits, and seeds of many plants 
frequently give rise to outgrowths in the form of papillae, hairs 
and scales. Epidermal papilla are short protuberances of epidermal 


Fig. 22. — Upper epidermis of Comptonia aspleni folialeat (surface view) show- 
ing epidermal cells and two non-glandular trichomes. 

cells. They may be seen to advantage on the upper epidermis of the 
ligulate corolla of various species of Chrysanthemum, on the lower 
epidermis of the foliage leaves of species of Erythroxylon and upon the 
upper epidermis of the petals of the Pansy ( Viola tricolor). Epi- 
dermal hairs or trichomes are more elongated outgrowths of one 
or more epidermal cells. They may be unicellular (Cotton) or 
multicellular, non-glandular (simple) or glandular. The non- 
glandular hairs may be of various shapes, viz.: clavate (club-shaped) 
as on Rhus glabra fruits; stellate (or star-shaped) as on Deutzia 
leaves; candelabra-shaped, as on Mullein leaves; filiform as on 


PLANT TISSUES 


73 


Hyoscyamus, Belladonna and Digitalis leaves; hooked, as on stems 
of Phaseolus multi florus or Hops; barbed, as on the stems of Loasa 
species; or tufted, as found on the leaves of Marrubium vulgare. 
They may be simple as in Cotton, etc., or branched as in Hyoscyamus 
muticus. 

The glandular hairs comprise those whose terminal cell or cells are 
modified into a more or less globular gland for gummy, resinous or 


Fig. 23. — Lower epidermis of Comptonia asplenifolia leaf (surface view) 
showing stomata (s) scattered amongst epidermal cells. To the left is to be 
noted the globular head of a glandular hair. (Photomicrograph). 

oily deposits. They are generally composed of a stalk and a head 
region although rarely the stalk may be absent. The stalk may be 
unicellular, bicellular or uniseriate (consisting of a series of super- 
imposed cells). The head varies from a one- to many-celled struc- 
ture. The drug Lupulin consists of the glandular hairs separated 
from the strobiles of HumuJus lupulus. 

Scales are flat outgrowths of the epidermis composed of one or 
several layers of cells. They occur attached to the stipes of Aspid- 


74 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ium, Osmunda and other ferns where they are called “chaff scales.” 
They are also found on a number of higher plants. 

Plant hairs are adapted to many different purposes. They may 
absorb nourishment in the form of moisture and mineral matter 


Fig. 25. 


Fig. 24. 


Fig. 24. — 1, Epidermis of oak leaf; 2, epidermis of Iris leaf, both viewed from 
the surface; 3, group of cells from petal of Viola tricolor; 4, two epidermal cells 
in cross-section showing thickened outer wall differentiated into three layers, 
namely, an outer cuticle, cutinized layer (shaded), and an inner cellulose layer; 
S and 6, epidermal outgrowths in the form of scales and hairs. (1, 2, 6 after 
Stevens, 3 after Strasburger, 4 after Sachs, and 5 after de Bary.) 

Fig. 25. — Different forms of epidermal outgrowths. 1, Hooked hair from 
Phaseolus multiflorus; 2, climbing hair from stem of Humulus Lupulus; 3, rod- 
like wax coating from the stem of Saccharum officinarum; 4, climbing hair of 
Loasa hispida; 5, stinging hair of Urtica urens. {Fig- 3 after de Bary; the re- 
mainder from Haberlandl.) 


in solution, e.g., root hairs. Those which serve as a protection to the 
plant may be barbed and silicified, rendering them unfit for animal 
food, or, as in the nettle, charged with an irritating fluid, penetrating 
the skin when touched, injecting the poison into the wound. A dense 
covering of hairs also prevents the ravages of insects and the clogging 


PLANT TISSUES 


75 


of the stomata by an accumulation of dust. They fill an important 
office in the dispersion of seeds and fruits, as with their aid such 
seeds as those of the milkweed and Apocynum are readily scattered 
by the wind. 

The reproductive organs of many Cryptogams are modified 
hairs, as the sporangia of Ferns. 

ENDODERMIS 

Endodermis is the “starch sheath” layer of cells, constituting 
the innermost layer of the cortex. In Angiospermous stems it 
usually resembles the other parenchyme layers of cortex as to struc- 
tural characteristics, save that it frequently contains more starch. 
In fern stems and roots of Angiosperms, however, its cells are clearly 
distinguished from the other cells of the primary cortex by their 
elongated form and suberized radial walls. In the roots of Mexican 
Sarsaparilla the inner as well as the radial walls are suberized; in 
those of the Honduras variety, inner, radial and outer walls all 
show suberization. Endodermal tissue is devoid of intercellular 
air spaces. Its cells contain protoplasm and nucleus. Its functions 
seem to be to give protection to the stele (tissues within it) and to 
reduce permeability between primary cortex and stele. 

CORK 

Cork or suberous tissue is composed of cells of tabular shape, 
whose walls possess suberized layers. Its cells are mostly filled 
with air containing a yellow or brownish substance. It is derived 
from the phellogen or cork cambium which cuts off cork cells 
outwardly. Cork tissue is devoid of intercellular-air-spaces. It 
forms a protective covering to the roots of secondary growth, stems 
(after the first season) of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, and 
wounds of stems and branches. Living cork cells contain protoplasm 
and cell sap while dead cork cells are filled with air. 

LATICIFEROUS TISSUE 

This form of tissue comprises either latex cells, laticiferous vessels, 
or secretory cells differing from each other in origin and method of 
development. Latex cells are elongated tubes which take their 


76 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


origin from meristematic cells of the embryo. Elongating with the 
growth of the plant, they branch in various directions and traverse 


Fig. 26. — Laticiferous vessels from the cortex of root of Scorozonora hispanica. 
A . As seen under low power, and B, a smaller portion under high power. (Stevens, 
after Sachs.) 


at maturity all of its organs. Such cells are abundant in the 
following families: Apocynacece, Asclepiadacece, Urticacece and 
Euphorbiacea. 


PLANT TISSUES 


77 


Laticiferous vessels are long simple or branching tubes, which owe 
their origin to chains of superimposed cells whose transverse walls 
have early become absorbed, the lumina of the cells then becoming 
filled with latex. They are found in various parts of roots, stems, 
and leaves. When branched the branches connect with those of 


other tubes forming anastomosing 


network. These vessels occur in the 
following families: Composites, Papa- 
veraceee, Campanulacece, Convolvula- 
cece, Euphorbiacece, Aracece, Oleacece, 
Geramacece, and Musacece. 

Secretory cells with a latex-like 
content are probably of secondary 
origin in plants. They resemble in 
many respects latex cells and are seen 
in various species of the Celastracece, 
Urticacece, Tiliacece, and Oleacece 
families. 

All laticiferous elements contain a 
colorless, milky-white, or otherwise 
colored emulsion of gum-resins, fat, 
wax, caoutchouc and in some cases, 
alkaloids, tannins, salts, ferments, etc. 
This emulsion is called “latex.” 

SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM) 
TISSUE 

This tissue found in the phloem 
(rarely in the xylem) region of fibro- 


Fig. 27.- — Stages in the develop- 
ment of sieve tubes, companion 
cells, and phloem parenchyma. A, 
a and b, Two rows of plerome cells; 
in c and d, a has divided longitudi- 
nally and c is to become companion 
cells; d, a sieve tube, and b, phloem 
parenchyma. B, c, Companion 
cells, and d, a beginning sieve tube 
from c and d, respectively in A. 
The cross- walls in d are pitted; b, 
phloem parenchyma grown larger 


vascular bundles consists of superim- than in A. C, The same as B with 
, , . j , , t n 1 the pits in the cross-walls of the 

posed, elongated, tubular cells whose sieve tubes become perforations, 

longitudinal walls are thin and com- and the nuclei gone from the cells 
, r ,,, , , , composingthe tube. (From 

posed of cellulose and whose trans- stevens.) 

verse walls, called “ sieve plates ” are 

perforated, permitting of the passage of proteids from one cell to 
another. Occasionally sieve plates are formed on the longitudinal 
walls. Sieve tubes are usually accompanied by companion cells ex- 


78 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


cepting in Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Both companion cells 
and sieve tubes arise by the division of the same mother-cell. The 
companion cells may be distinguished from the sieve tubes by their 
. , abundant protoplasmic contents, and 
also by the fact that they retain their 
nuclei after complete maturation. Be- 
sides sieve tubes, companion cells, and 
bast fibers, parenchyma cells are often 
found in the phloem. 

TRACHEARY TISSUE 


Fig. 28. — Vascular ele- 
ments. A , annular tracheal 
tube; B, spiral trachea tube; 

C, reticulated tracheal tube; 

D, pitted tracheal tube; E, 
cross-section through plate 
of sieve tube, and adjoining 
companion cell; F, length- 
wise section of sieve tube; G, 
portions of two companion 
cells. (A, B, C, D, Robbins; 

E, F, and G, after Stras- 
burger.) 


The tracheary tissue of plants comprises 
two kinds of elements, the trachea (ducts 
or vessels) and tracheids. Both of these 
conduct crude sap (water with mineral 
salts in solution). The trachea are very 
long tubes of a cylindrical or prismatic 
shape which are formed by the disintegra- 
tion of the transverse walls between cer- 
tain groups of superimposed cells, during 
the growth of the plant. The tubes 
frequently retain some of their transverse 
walls. The longitudinal walls of these 
tubes are of varying thickness, usually, 
however, thinner than those of woody 
fibers. The thickness is due to an infil- 
tration of lignin upon the original cel- 
lulose wall. The walls show character- 
istic thickenings on their inner surfaces. 

Tracheae are classified according to 
their markings as follows: 

Annular, with ring-like thickenings. 


Spiral, with spiral thickenings. 
Reticulate, with reticulate thickenings. 

Porous or pitted with spherical or oblique slit pores. 
Annulo-spiral, with both ring and spiral thickenings. 
Scalariform, with ladder-like thickenings. 


79 


" 

PLANT TISSUES 


D 


Fig. 29. — Stages in the development of the elements of the xylem. A, pro- 
gressive steps in the development of a tracheal tube. 1, Row of plerome or 
cambial cells that are to take part in the formation of a tube; 2, the same at a 
later stage enlarged in all dimensions; 3, the cells in 2 have grown larger, their 
cross-walls have been dissolved out, and the wall has become thickened and 
pitted; 4, the walls in 3 have become more thickened, the pits have an overhang- 
ing border, the walls have become lignified as indicated by the stippling, and 
finally the protoplasts have disappeared, and the tube is mature and dead. B, 
Stages in the formation of tracheids from plerome or cambial cells. The steps 


8o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Tracheids are undeveloped ducts having bordered pores and fre- 
quently scalariform thickenings. Like trachese their walls give the 
characteristic lignin reaction with phloroglucin and HC1. The 


Fig. 30. — Closed collateral bundle of stem of Zea mays. VG, Bundle sheath; 
L, intercellular space; A, ring from an annular tracheal tube; SP, spiral tracheal 
tube; M, pitted vessels; V, sieve tubes; 5 , companion cells; CP, crushed primary 
sieve tubes; F, thin-walled parenchyma of the ground or fundamental tissue. 
C From Sayre after Strasburger.) 

bordered pores exhibit a wall surrounding the pore which forms a 
dome-shaped protrusion into the cell. Like tracheae, also, tracheids 
convey water with mineral salts in solution. Tracheids and medul- 
lary rays make up most of the wood of Gymnosperms. 

are the same as in A, excepting that the cross- walls remain and become pitted. 
C, steps in the development of wood fibers from cambial cells. 1, Cambial cells; 
2, the same growth larger in all dimensions with cells shoving past each other 
as they elongate; 3, a later stage with cells longer and more pointed and walls 
becoming thickened and pitted; 4, complete wood fibers with walls more thick- 
ened than in the previous stage and lignified, as shown by the stippling. The 
protoplasts in this last stage have disappeared and the fibers are dead. D, steps 
in the formation of wood parenchyma from cambial or procambial cells. 1, 
Group of cambial or plerome cells; 2, the same enlarged in all dimensions; 3, the 
same with walls thickened and pitted; 4 and 5 show the same stages as 2 and 3, 
but here the cells have enlarged radially or tangentially more than they have 
vertically. The walls of these cells are apt to become lignified, but the cells are 
longer lived than the wood fibers. ( From Stevens.) 


PLANT TISSUES 


MEDULLARY RAYS 

These are bands of parenchyma cells which extend radially from 
the cortex to the pith (primary medullary rays) or from a part of the 
xylem to a part of the phloem (secondary medullary rays). Their 
primary function is to supply the cambium and wood with elabo- 
rated sap formed in the leaves and conveyed away by the sieve tubes, 


Fig. 31. — Transverse section of a concentric bundle from the rhizome of Iris 
(a monocotyledon). Xylem surrounding the phloem, t, Tracheae; t 1 , proto- 
xylem; s, sieve tubes; g, companion cells of the internal phloem portion. ( From 
Sayre after Vines.) 

and phloem parenchyma and to supply the cambium and phloem 
with crude sap which passes up mainly through the tracheae and 
tracheids from the absorptive regions of the roots. They further- 
more serve as storage places for starch, alkaloids, resins, and other 
substances. 

Fibro-vascular Bundles are groups of fibers, vessels and cells cours- 
ing through the various organs of a plant and serving for conduction 
and support. According to the relative structural arrangement of 
their xylem and phloem masses they may be classed as follows: 

I. Closed collateral, consisting of a mass of xylem lying alongside 
of a mass of phloem, the xylem facing toward the center, the phloem 
6 


82 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


facing toward the exterior. Stems of most Monocotyledons and 
Horsetails. 

II. Open collateral, consisting of a mass of xylem facing toward 
the pith and a mass of phloem facing toward the exterior and sepa- 
rated from each other by a cambium. Stems and leaves of Dicoty- 
ledons and roots of Dicotyls and Gymnosperms of secondary growth. 


Fig. 32.- — Cross-section through a portion of a root of Acorus calamus. A. 
Cortical parenchyma; B, endodermis; C, pericycle; E, phloem; F, xylem. At 
F, Y, are large tracheal tubes, which were formed last, the narrow tubes near 
the periphery of the xylem being formed first. At the center of the root, within 
the circle of the vascular bundle, occur thin-walled parenchymatous pith cells. 
(From Sayre after Frank.) 


III. Bicollateral, characterized by a xylem mass being between 
an inner and an outer phloem mass. There are two layers of cam- 
bium cells, one between the xylem and inner phloem mass, the other 
between the xylem and outer phloem mass. Seen chiefly in stems 
and leaves of the Cucurbitacece and Solanacece. ' 

IV. Concentric, characterized by a central xylem mass surrounded 
by a phloem mass or vice versa. No cambium present. 


PLANT TISSUES 83 

(a) Concentric, with xylem central in bundle. Seen in stems and 
leaves of nearly all ferns and the Lycopodiacece. 

( b ) Concentric, with phloem central in bundle. Seen in stems and 
leaves of some Monocotyledons. Examples: Calamus and Conval- 
laria rhizomes. 

V. Radial, characterized by a number of xylem and phloem masses 
alternating with one another. Seen in the roots of all Spermalo- 
phytes and Pteridophytes. 

Xylem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains wood 
cells and fibers. It may also contain tracheae, tracheids, seldom 
sieve tubes. 

Phloem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains sieve 
tubes, phloem cells, and often bast libers. 

SECRETION SACS (SECRETION CELLS) 

These were formerly parenchyma cells which sooner or later lost 
their protoplasm and nucleus and became receptacles for oil, resin, 
oleoresin, mucilage or some other secretory substance. They are 
generally found in parenchyma regions of stems, roots, leaves, 
flower or fruit parts and frequently possess suberized walls. Good 
illustrations of these structures may be seen in Ginger and Calamus. 

INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES 

Intercellular air spaces are cavities filled with air found between 
cells or groups of cells throughout the bodies of higher plants. Their 
function is to permit of the rapid movement of atmospheric gases 
through the entire plant body. They are formed either by the 
breaking down of the middle lamella of the cell walls, where several 
cells come together, and a later separation of the cells at these 
places ( Scliizogenous intercellular air spaces ), or by a breaking down 
and disappearance of cell walls common to groups of cells ( lysigenous 
intercellular air spaces). In terrestrial plants which live in middle 
regions ( mesophytes ) and in desert plants ( xeropkytes ) the intercellu- 
lar air spaces are averagely small and more or less angular. In plants 
of swamp or marsh habit they are medium-sized while in those which 
live entirely in the water ( hydrophytes ) they are of large size and 
more or less rounded. 


8 4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SECRETION RESERVOIRS 

These structures are either found as globular or irregular spaces, 
as in Orange and Lemon Peel and Eucalyptus leaves, containing oil 
or oil and resin when they are called internal glands or, as tube-like 
spaces filled with hydrocarbon principles such as are found in Pine 
leaves and stems, when they sometimes receive the name of secretion 
canals. Occasionally they are named according to the nature of 
their contents — resin or oil canal or reservoir, etc. They are gen- 
erally lined with a layer of cells, usually more or less flattened, which 
are characterized by possessing large nuclei. To this layer has been 
assigned the name “epithelium.” 


Fig. 33. — Resin duct (secretion reservoir) in leaf of Pinus silvestris, in cross 
section at A , and in longitudinal section at B ; h, cavity surrounded by the secret- 
ing cells;/,/, sclerenchyma fibers surrounding and protecting the duct. ( Stevens , 
after Haberlandt.) 


Classification of Tissues According to Function.— According to 
their particular function, tissues may be classified as follows: 


I. Conducting Tissue 


II. Protective Tissues 


III. Mechanical Tissues 


’ Parenchyme (fundamental tissue) 
Xylem cells (wood parenchyme) 
Tracheae (ducts) 

Phloem cells 
Sieve tubes 
. Companion cells 

I Epidermis (outer cell walls cutinized) 
l Cork (suberized tissue) 

Bast fibers 
Wood fibers 
Sclerenchyme fibers 
Stone cells 


CHAPTER VII 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 

An organ is a part of an organism made up of several tissues and 
capable of performing some special work. 

An organism is a living entity composed of different organs or 
parts with functions which are separate, but mutually dependent, 
and essential to the life of the individual. 

The organs of flowering plants are either Vegetative or Reproduc- 
tive. The vegetative organs of higher plants are roots, stems, and 
leaves. They are concerned in the absorption and elaboration of 
food materials either for tissue-building or storage. 

The reproductive organs of higher plants include those structures 
whose function it is to continue the species, viz.: th t flower , fruit and 
seed. 

The ripened seed is the product of reproductive processes, and the 
starting point in the life of all Spermatophytes. The living part of 
the seed is the embryo, which, when developed, consists of four parts, 
the caulicle, or rudimentary stem, the lower end of which is the be- 
ginning of the root, or radicle. At the upper extremity of the stem 
are one, two, or several thickened bodies, closely resembling leaves, 
known as cotyledons, and between these a small bud or plumule. 

The function of the cotyledon is to build up nourishment for the 
rudimentary plantlet until it develops true leaves of its own. 

THE ROOT 

The root is that part of the plant that grows into or toward the 
soil, that never develops leaves, rather rarley produces buds, and 
whose growing apex is covered by a cap. 

The functions of a root are absorption, storage and support. Its 
principal function is the absorption of nutriment and to this end it 

85 


86 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


generally has branches or rootlets covered with root-hairs which 
largely increase the absorbing surface. These root-hairs are of 
minute and simple structure, being merely elongations of the 
epidermis of the root back of the root cap into slender tubes with 
thin walls. 


Fig. 35- — Root-hairs, with soil-particles adhering. (Gager, after Sachs.) 


The tip of each rootlet is protected by a sheath- or scale-like cover- 
ing known as the root cap, which not only protects the delicate grow- 
ing point, but serves as a mechanical aid in pushing its way through 
the soil. The generative tissues in the region of the root cap are: 
plerome, producing fibro-vascular tissue; periblem, producing cortex; 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 87 

dermatogen, producing epidermis; and calyptrogen, producing the 
root cap. 

Differences Between Root and Stem 


The Root 

The Stem 

I. 

Descending axis of plant. 

1. Ascending axis of plant. 

2. 

Growing point sub-apical. 

2. Growing point apical. 

3 - 

Contains no chlorophyll. 

3. Chlorophyll sometimes present. 

4 - 

Branches arranged irregularly. 

4. Branches with mathematical regu- 


larity. 

5 - 

Does not bear leaves or leaf rudi- 

5. Bears leaves and modifications. 


ments. 


6. 

Structure comparatively simple. 

6. Structure better defined. 


Classification of Roots as to Form. — i. Primary or first root, a 
direct downward growth from the seed, which, if greatly in excess of 
the lateral roots, is called the main or tap root. Examples: Taraxa- 
cum, Radish. 

2. Secondary roots are produced by the later growths of the stem, 
such as are covered with soil and supplied with moisture. Both 
primary and secondary roots may be either fibrous or fleshy. 

The grasses are good examples of plants having fibrous roots. 
Fleshy roots may be multiple, as those of the Dahlia, or may assume 
simple forms, as follows: 

Fusiform, or spindle-shaped, like that of the radish or parsnip. 

Napiform or turnip-shaped, somewhat globular and becoming 
abruptly slender then terminating in a conical tap root, as the roots 
of the turnip. 

Conical, having the largest diameter at the base then tapering, as 
in the Maple. 

3. Anomalous roots are of irregular or unusual habits, subserving 
other purposes than the normal. 

4. Adventitious roots are such as occur in abnormal places on the 
plant. Examples: Roots developing on Bryophyllum and Begonia 
leaves when placed in moist sand. 

5. Epiphytic roots, the roots of epiphytes, common to tropical 
forests, for example, never reach the soil at all, but cling to the bark 
of trees and absorb nutriment from the air. Example: Roots of 
Vanilla. 


88 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


6. The roots of parasitic plants are known as Ilaustoria. These 
penetrate the bark of plants upon which they find lodgment, known 
as hosts, and absorb nutritious juices from them. The Mistletoe, 
Dodder and Geradia are typical parasites. 

Duration of Root. — Plants are classified according to the duration 
of the root, as follows: 

1. Annual plants are herbs with roots containing no nourishment 
for future use. They complete their growth, producing flower, 
fruit and seed in a single season, then die. 

2. Biennial plants develop but one set of organs the first year, and 
as in the beet and turnip, etc., a large amount of reserve food material 
is stored in the root for the support of the plant the following season 
when it flowers, fruits, and dies. 

3. Perennial plants live indefinitely, as trees. 

Root Histology. - Monocotyledons. — The histology of mono- 
cotyledonous roots varies, depending upon relations to their sur- 
roundings, which may be aquatic, semi-aquatic, mesophytic, or 
xerophytic. In this connection we will discuss only the type of 
greatest pharmacognic importance, i.e., the mesophytic type as 
seen in its most typical form in the transverse section of Honduras 
Sarsaparilla root. 

Examining such a section from periphery toward the center, one 
notes the following: 

1. Epidermis of a single layer of cells many of which give rise to 
root-hairs. 

2. Hypodermis of two or three layers of cells whose walls are 
extremely thickened. 

3. Cortex, consisting of a broad zone of parenchyme cells many of 
which contain starch grains. 

4. Endodermis of one layer of endodermal cells whose walls are 
extremely thickened through the infiltration of suberin and lignin. 

5. Pericambium of one or two layers of meristematic cells whose 
walls are extremely thin. 

6. A radial fibro-vascnlar bundle of many alternating xylem and 
phloem patches and hence polyarch. The phloem tissue consists 
of phloem cells and sieve tubes. The xylem is composed of xylem 
cells, tracheae and wood fibers. 


Fig. 36. — Part of a transverse section of Honduras sarsaparilla root showing 
epidermis (e), root hair (ha), hypodermis (h), cortex (c), endodermis ( en ), peri- 
cambium (p), trachea of one of the numerous xylem patches (<), and pith (m). 
The phloem patches are the small oval cellular areas wedges in between the outer 
portions of adjacent xylem masses. (Photomicrograph.) 

xylem alternating with four phloem patches. These roots have an 
unlimited power of growth. 

A. Of Primary Growth. 

A trans-section of a dicotyl root in its young growth shows the 
following structure from periphery toward center: 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 89 


7. Medulla or pith composed of parenchyme cells containing starch 
and often showing xylem patches cut off and enclosed within it. 
Dicotyledons. — The typical dicotyl root is a tetrarch one, four 


9 ° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


1. Epidermis with cutinized outer walls, the cells often elongating 
to form root-hairs. 

2. Hypodermis. 

3. Primary cortex with usually small intercellular spaces. 

4. Endodermis, or innermost layer of cells of the cortex with 
lenticularly thickened radial walls. 

5. Pericambium of one to two layers of actively growing cells 
which may produce side rootlets. 

6. Radial fibro-vascular bundle of four, rarely two or three or five 
or six phloem patches alternating with as many xylem arms. Not 
uncommon to find bast or phloem fiber along outer face of each 
phloem patch. Xylem has spiral tracheae, internal to these a few 
pitted vessels, then, as root ages, more pitted vessels, also xylem 
cells and wood fibers make their appearance. 

B. Of Secondary Growth (Most official roots). 

At about six weeks one notes cells dividing by tangential walls in 
the inner curve of phloem patches. This is intrafascicular cambium. 
A single layer of flattened cells starts to cut off on its inner side a 
quantity of secondary xylem and pushes out the patches of bast 
fibers, adds a little secondary phloem on the outer side. Secondary 
xylem finally fills up the patches between the arms. The patches of 
bast fibers get flattened out. The pericambium has a tendency to 
start division into an inner and outer layer. The outer layer be- 
comes a cork cambium (phellogen) surrounding the bundle inside of 
the endodermis. It cuts off cork tissue on its outer face, hence all 
liquid material is prevented from filtering through and cortex includ- 
ing endodermis, as well as the epidermis, shrivel and dry up and 
separate off at the age of two to three months. The cork cambium 
(phellogen) may lay down secondary cortex internal to itself and 
external to the phloem. 

Patches of cells of the inner layer of pericambium divide rapidly 
and are called interfascicular cambium. These join the intrafasci- 
cular cambium to form a continuous cambium ring which then 
cuts off additional secondary xylem on its inner face and sec- 
ondary phloem on its outer face pushing inward the first-formed 
or protoxylem and outward the first-formed or protophloem. The 
medullary rays become deepened. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


91 


Thus, in a transverse section made through a portion of a Dicotyl 
root showing secondary growth , the following regions are noted pass- 
ing from periphery to center: 

1. Cork 

2. Cork cambium (phellogen) 

3. Secondary cortex 
r 4. Protophloem 

5. Secondary phloem 

6. Cambium 

7. Secondary xylem 

8. Protoxylem 


w <& 

> t/i 


jQ 

E 


Strands of cells extending radially 
from the cortex to the center of the 


section separating each open fibro- 
vascular bundle from its neighbors. 
These are called medullary rays. 

Histology and Development of a 
Dicotyl Root (California Privet). — A. 
Make a permanent mount of a T. S. 
of the root of the California Privet 
( Ligustrum Calif or nicum) cut just 
above the root cap, and note the fol- 
lowing structures, passing from pe- 
riphery toward the center: 

1. Epidermis, composed of a layer 
of epidermal cells whose outer walls 
have been infiltrated with a substance 
called Cutin. 


Fig. 37. — Cross-section of a 
young root of Phaseolus mulli- 
Jlorus. A, pr, cortex; m, pith; 
x, stele or central cylinder — all 
tissue within the pericycle, in- 
clusive; g, primary xylem bun- 
dles; b, primary phloem bun- 
dles. B, cross-section of older 
portion of root; lettered as in 
A ; b', secondary phloem, k, 
cork. ( Stevens , after Vines.) 


2. Hypodermis, a layer of somewhat thick walled cells just be- 
neath the epidermis. 

3. Cortex, contposed of cortical parenchyme cells with small 
angular intercellular air spaces. 

4. Endodermis, or innermost layer of cells of the cortex, whose 
radial walls are lenticularly thickened. 

5. Pericambium, of a layer of actively growing meristematic 
cells, which has the power of producing lateral rootlets. 


92 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


6. Radial fibro-vascular bundle of five xylem arms alternating 
with as many phloem patches. Note the narrow spiral tracheae in 
the xylem patches. 

The section you have just studied illustrated in general the appear- 
ance of any Dicotyl root of primary growth. 

B. Mount permanently another T. S. cut through the same root a 
short distance above the first. 

Note that this is somewhat larger in diameter. Observe the root 
hairs starting from the epidermis; a broad cortex; a large clear and 
open looking endodermis; then pericambium; next, a central patch 
of xylem showing a faint pentarch relation. Pushed out are five 
phloem tracts. Each of these constitutes a mass of protophloem 
(first formed phloem). On the inner face of each phloem mass may 
be seen intrafascicular cambium. At the outer end of each xylem 
tract there has been cut off a patch of fine cambial cells (interfascic- 
ular cambium) which becomes joined to the intrafascicular cambium 
to develop secondary phloem on the outer face and secondary xylem 
on the inner face. 

C. Mount permanently a third T. S. out through the same root a 
short distance above the second. Note that this is still larger in 
diameter than the second. The pericambium has already divided 
into an inner and an outer layer. The outer layer has become the 
cork cambium, cutting off cork on its outer face beneath the endo- 
dermis. Cork being an impermeable barrier to water has prevented 
the nourishing sap from percolating through to the endodermis, cor- 
tex and epidermis. The epidermis has consequently begun to sluff 
off. Note that the cambium has begun to spread out into the form 
of a ring. More secondary xylem has been formed on its inner face 
and additional secondary phloem has appeared on its outer face. 

D. Make a permanent mount of a fourth T. S. cut through the 
same root some distance above the third. Note that the epidermis, 
primary cortex and endodermis have completely peeled off. Cork 
is found as the external bounding layer and underneath it, cork 
cambium. This cork cambium has developed secondary cortex on 
its inner face. The cambium has assumed a circular aspect. Just 
beneath the secondary cortex will be found flattened patches of 
protopliloem, and beneath these secondary phloem masses have 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


93 


been formed through the activity of the cambium: The cambium 
has developed new or secondary xylem on its inner face which has 
pushed the first formed or protoxylem toward the center of the root. 

Abnormal Structure of Dicotyl Roots. — In certain Dicotyl roots 
as Amaranthus, Jalap, Pareira, and Phytolacca after the normal 
bundle system has been formed, there then develop successive cam- 
biums outside of these bundles, producing concentric series of open 
collateral bundles. 

Histology of a Dicotyl Tuberous Root (Aconitum).- — A transverse 
section made through the tuberous root of Aconitum Napellus near 
its middle shows a cork region of one or more layers of blackish or 
brownish cells; a broad cortex of two regions, viz.: an outer narrower 
and an inner broader zone. The narrower zone consists of from eight 
to fifteen layers of cortical parenchyme cells, interspersed among 
which are numerous irregular-shaped stone cells. Separating this 
zone from the broader one is an endodermis of a single layer of tan- 
gentially elongated endodermal cells. The broader zone consists of 
about twenty layers of parenchyme cells. Next, a five- to seven- 
angled cambium, within the angles of which and frequently scattered 
along the entire cambial line, occur collateral fibro-vascular bundles. 
In the center is found a broad five- to seven-rayed pith composed of 
parenchyme cells. The parenchyme cells of the cortical regions and 
pith contain single or two- to five-compound starch grains. 

Root Tubercles 

The roots of plants of the Leguminosoe, Myricacece as well as some 
species of Aristolochiacece and of the genera Alnus and Ceanothus are 
characterized by the appearance upon them of nodule-like swellings 
called root tubercles. In the case of the Leguminosae the causative 
factor is a species of bacteria named Pseudomonas radicicola. This 
is a motile rod-shaped organism which appears widely distributed 
in soils. It is apparently attracted to the root-hairs of leguminous 
plants by a chemotactic influence probably due to the secretions 
poured out by these structures. A number of these organisms pene- 
trate the walls of the root-hairs by enzymic action. Upon entering 
the hairs they form bacterial tubes which branch and rebranch and 


94 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


extend into the middle cortex cells carrying the bacteria with them. 
Within the cortex cells the organisms multiply rapidly producing 
nest-like aggregations. Their presence here causes the formation of 
nodules or tubercles. Under oil-immersion magnification these 
bacteria are found to exhibit variously shaped involution forms called 
bacterioids. They remain within the cells of the medio-cortex region 


Fig. 38. — Root system of a legume showing tubercles. (Marshall.) 


gradually swelling up into zoogloea masses until finally their bodies 
break down into soluble nitrogenous substances which are partly 
absorbed and assimilated and partly stored as reserve nitrogenous 
food for the green leguminous plant. 

In the modern rotation of crops, plant growers plough under the 
leguminous crops or their nodule-producing roots which decay and 
enrich the soil with ample nitrogenous material to supply the next 
season’s crop of nitrogen-consuming plants. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


95 


The writer has found tubercles on Myrica cerifera, Myrica Car- 
oliniensis and Myrica Macfarlanei seedling primary roots of 5 to 6 
months’ growth, and from thence onward on the secondary roots 
inserted on the hypocotyl axis, on nearly all the adventitious roots of 
subterranean branches and on the subterranean branches of Myrica 
cerifera, M. Caroliniensis, M. Gale, M. Macfarlanei, and Comptonia 
asplenifolia. The inciting organism has been isolated by him in 
pure culture according to Koch’s postulates and named Actinomyces 
Myricarum Youngken. 


Fig. 39. — Ps. radicicola. i, From Melilotus alba; 2 and 3, from Medicago saliva ; 

4, from Vicia villosa. ( Marshall , after Harrison and Barlow from Lipman.) 

The tubercles occur either singly, as is frequently the case on 
subterranean branches, in small groups the size of a pea, or in larger 
coralloid loose or compact clusters which frequently attain the size 
of a black walnut. Each tubercle is a short cylindrical blunt-ended 
root-like structure which branches di- or trichotomously after attain- 
ing a certain length. The branches frequently rebranch at their tips 
which grow out into long thread-like structures from 1-3 cm. in 
length that may also branch and become entwined about the roots of 
other plants. The color of the youngest tubercles is a pinkish-gray 
brown. As the tubercles become older their color changes to brown, 
dark-brown and even black. (For a detailed description of the 
Myrica and Comptonia tubercles and their inciting organism, con- 


9 6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


suit, “The Comparative Morphology, Taxonomy and Distribution 
of the Myricaceas of the Eastern United States” by Youngken in 
U. of Pa. Library.) 


Fig. 40. — Tubercular clusters on underground stem and roots of Myrica Mac- 
farlanei observed by the author at North Wildwood, N. J., Jan. 31, 1915. 

THE BUD 

Buds are short young shoots with or without rudimentary leaves 
(bud scales) compactly arranged upon them. 

The plumule represents the first bud on the initial stem or caulicle. 

Scaly buds are such as have their outer leaf rudiments transformed 
into scales; there are often coated with a waxy or resinous substance 
without and a downy lining within, to protect them from sudden 
changes in climate. Buds of this character are common among 
shrubs and trees of temperate regions. 

Naked buds are those which are devoid of protective scales. 
They are common to herbaceous plants. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


97 


Classification of Buds According to Development. — i. A leaf bud 
is a young shortened shoot bearing a number of small leaves. It is 
capable of elongating into a branch which bears leaves. 

2. A flower bad is a rudimentary shoot bearing one or more 
concealed and unexpanded young flowers. 

5. A mixed bud is a young shoot bearing concealed unexpanded 
leaves and flowers. 

Classification of Buds According to Position on the Stem. — 1. A 
terminal bud is one which is located on the end of a stem (shoot). 
It is capable of elongating into a shoot which bears leaves or both 
leaves and flowers. 

2. An axillary or lateral bud is one which arises in the leaf axil. 
It is capable of giving rise to a side branch or to a flower. Occa- 
sionally axillary buds do not develop and are then called dormant 
buds. 

3. An adventitious bud is one which occurs on some position of the 
stem other than at its apex or in the axil of a leaf. Such buds may 
be seen developing along the veins of a Begonia leaf or along the 
margin of a Bryophyllum leaf after these have been planted in 
moist soil for several days. 

4. An accessory bud is an extra bud which forms in or near the 
leaf axil. 

Classification of Buds According to Their Arrangement on the Stem. 

1. When a single bud is found at each joint or node of a stem, the 
buds are said to be alternate. 

2. When two buds are found at a node they are opposite. 

3. When several buds occur at a node they are whorled. 

THE STEM 

The stem is that part of the plant axis which bears leaves or modi- 
fications of leaves and its branches are usually arranged with mathe- 
matical regularity. 

Stems usually grow toward the light and so are heliotropic. 

The functions of a stem are to bear leaves or branches, connect 
roots with leaves, and conduct sap. 

When the stem rises above ground and is apparent, the plant is 
said to be caulescent. 

7 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


98 . 

When no stem is visible, but only flower or leaf stalks, the plant is 
said to be acaulescent. 

Stems vary in size from scarcely I25 inch in length, as in certain 
mosses, to a remarkable height of 400 feet or more. The giant 
Sequoia of California attains the height of 420 feet. Some of the 
Eucalyptus trees of Australia and Tasmania are reported to attain 
the height of 500 feet. 

Nodes and Intemodes. — The nodes are the joints of stems. They 
represent the parts of the stem from which leaves or branches arise. 
Internodes are the parts of stems between nodes. 

Direction of Stem Growth. — Generally the growth of the stem is 
erect. Very frequently it may be: 

Ascending, or rising obliquely upward. Example: Saw Palmetto. 

Reclining, or at first erect but afterward bending over and trailing 
upon the ground. Example: Raspberry. 

Procumbent, lying wholly upon the ground. Example : Pipsissewa. 

Decumbent, when the stem trails and the apex curves upward. 
Example: Vines of the Cucurbitacese. 

Repent, creeping upon the ground and rooting at the nodes, as the 
Strawberry. 

Stem Elongation. — At the tip of the stem there is found a group of 
very actively dividing cells (meristem) which is the growing point of 
the stem. All the tissues of the stem are derived from the cells of 
the growing point whose activity gives rise in time to three generative 
regions which are from without, inward: 

1. Dermatogen, forming epidermis; 

2. Periblem, forming the cortex; and 

3. Plerome, forming the fibro-vascular elements and pith. 

Duration of Stems. 

Annual, the stem of an herb whose life terminates with the season. 
Example: Corn. 

Biennial, where the stem dies at the end of the second year. 
Example: Burdock. 

Perennial, when the stem lives for many years. Example: 
Oak. ^ 

Stem Modifications. — (1) twining, by elongation and marked 
circumnutation of young internodes as in Convolvulus, Dodder, 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


99 


etc. (2) Tendriliform by thread-like modification and sensitivity 
to contact of a side branch as in Passion flower, Squash, etc. (3) 
Spiny, by checking and hardening of a branch that may then become 
defensive ecologically as in hawthorn, honey locust, etc. (4) 
Aerial tuberous, in which one or more internodes enlarge above 
ground and store reserve food as in pseudobulbs of orchids, Vitis 
gongylodes, etc. (5) Subterranean tuberous in which a subter- 
ranean stem or branch enlarges as a food-storing center: (a) annual 
type, tuber as in potato, etc., corm as in crocus, etc.; (b) perennial 
type, bulbs as in lily (scaly) and onion or hyacinth (tunicated). 

(6) Phylloid or leaf-like in w r hich flattening branch expansion occurs, 
when leaves become reduced in size as in Asparagus, Ruscus, etc. 

(7) Cactoid, in which reduced condensed branches or stems 
become swollen for water (and food) storage as in Cacti, Euphorbia 
sp., etc. 

Above-ground Stems. — A twining stem winds around a support, 
as the stem of a bean or Morning Glory. 

A culm is a jointed stem of the Grasses and Sedges. 

A climbing or scandent stem grows upward by attaching itself 
to some support by means of aerial rootlets, tendrils or petioles. 
Examples: Ivy, Grape, etc. 

The scape is a stem rising from the ground and bearing flowers 
but no leaves, as the dandelion, violet, or blood root. 

A tendril is a modification of some special organ, as of a leaf 
stipule or branch, capable of coiling spirally and used by a plant in 
climbing. Present in the Grape, Pea, etc. 

A spine or thorn is the indurated termination of a stem tapering 
to a point, as the thorns of the Honey Locust. 

Prickles are outgrowths of the epidermis and cortex and are 
seen in the roses. 

A stolon is a prostrate branch, the end of which, on coming in con- 
tact with the soil, takes root, so giving rise to a new plant. Examples: 
Currant and Raspberry. 

An herbaceous stem is one which is soft in texture and readily 
broken. Example: Convallaria. 

An undershrub or sujf'ruitcose stem is a stem of small size and 
woody only at the base. Examples: Bitter-sweet, Thyme, etc. 


IOO 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


A shrubby or fruitcose stem is a woody stem larger than the pre- 
ceding and freely branching near the ground. Example: Lilac, etc. 

A trunk is the woody main stem of a tree. 

Herb and Tree 

A tree is a perennial woody plant of considerable size (20 feet or 
more in height) and having as the above-ground parts a trunk and a 
crown of leafy branches. 

An herb is a plant whose stem does not become woody and perma- 
nent, but dies, at least down to the ground, after flowering. 

Underground Stems. — A rhizome is a creeping underground stem, 
more or less scaly, sending off roots from its lower surface and stems 
from its upper. The rhizome grows horizontally, vertically or ob- 
liquely, bearing a terminal bud at its tip. Its upper surface is 
marked with the scars of the bases of aerial stems of previous years. 
Examples: Triticum, Rhubarb, etc. 

The tuber is a short and excessively thickened underground stem, 
borne usually at the end of a slender, creeping branch, and having 
numerous eyes or buds. Example: Tubers of the Potato. 

The corm is an underground stem excessively thickened and solid 
and characterized by the production of buds from the center of the 
upper surface and rootlets from the lower surface. Examples: 
Colchicum, Jack-in-the-Pulpit, etc. 

A bulb is a very short and scaly stem, producing roots from the 
lower face and leaves and flower from the upper. 

Tunicated bulbs are completely covered by broad scales which 
form concentric coatings. Examples: Onion, Squill, Daffodil. 

Scaly bulbs have narrow imbricated scales, the outer ones not en- 
closing the inner. Example: Lily. 

Tubers and corms are annual. Bulbs and Rhizomes are perennial. 

Exogenous and Endogenous Stems.- — Exogenous stems are typical 
of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons and can increase materially in 
thickness due to presence of a cambium. Such stems show differen- 
tiation into an outer or cortical region and an inner or central cylinder 
region. 

Endogenous stems are typical of most Monocotyledons and cannot 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


IOI 


increase materially in thickness due to absence of cambium. The 
limited increase in diameter that does take place is due to the en- 
largement of the cells of the primary tissues. Such stems show no 
differentiation into cortical and central regions. 

Histology of Annual Dicotyl Stem. — (In both annual and perennial 
dicotyledonous stems endodermis and pericambium are rarely seen 


Fig. 41. — Photomicrograph of cross-section of stem of Aristolochia sipho, 
where cambial activity is just beginning, a, Epidermis; b, collenchyma; c, thin- 
walled parenchyma of the cortex, the innermost cell layer of which is the starch 
sheath or endodermis; d, sclerenchyma ring of the pericycle; e, thin-walled paren- 
chyma of the pericycle; /, primary medullary ray; g, phloem; h,\x ylem; i, inter- 
fascicular cambium; j, medulla or pith. X 20. ( From Stevens.) 

since each has become so similar to cortex through passage of food, 
etc.) 

1. Epidermis, cutinized, with hairs. 

2. Cortex composed of three zones: an outer or exocortex, whose 
cells are thin walled and contain chloroplasts; a middle or medio- 
cortex, consisting of cells of indurated walls giving extreme pliability 
and strength, an inner or endocortex, a very broad zone of thin- and 
thicked-walled parenchyme cells. 

3. The innermost layer of cells of the cortex called endodermis. 
(Not generally distinguishable.) 


102 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


103 


4. Pericambium. (Not generally distinguishable.) 

5. Fibro-vascular bundles of open collateral type arranged in a 
circle with primary medullary rays between the bundles. 

6. Pith. 


104 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Growth of Perennial Dicotyl Stem and its Histology. — A perennial 
dicotyl stem in the first year does not differ is structure from an 
annual. By the close of the year a cork cambium (phellogen) has 
originated beside the epidermis. In origin of cork cambium — one 
of two methods: ( a ) either the epidermis may divide into an outer 
layer of cells that remains epidermis and an inner layer of cells that 
becomes cork cambium, or, ( b ) the outermost layer of cortex cells 
underneath the epidermis becomes active after being passive for 
one year, and lays down walls, the inner layer becoming cork cam- 
bium, the outer becoming a layer of cork. The cork cuts off water 
and food supplies from epidermis outside and so epidermis separates 
and falls off as a stringy layer. The cork cambium produces cork 
on its outer face and secondary cortex on its inner. 

Between the bundles certain cells of the primary medullary rays 
become very active and form interfascicular cambium which joins 
the cambium of the first-formed bundles (intrafascicular cambium) 
to form a complete cambium ring. By the rapid multiplication of 
these cambial cells new (secondary) xylem is cut off internally and 
new (secondary) phloem externally, pushing inward the first-formed, 
or protoxylem, and outward the first-formed, or protophloem, thus 
increasing the diameter of the stem. The primary medullary rays 
are deepened. Cambium may also give rise to secondary medullary 
rays. 

Sometimes, as in Grape Vines, Honeysuckles, and Asclepias, in- 
stead of cork cambium arising from outer cortex cells it may arise 
at any point in cortex. It is the origin of cork cambium at varying 
depths that causes extensive sheets of tissue to separate off. That 
is what gives the stringy appearance to the stems of climbers. 

At close of first year in Perennial Dicolyl Stem we note : 

Epidermis — development of dermatogen or periblem — in process of 
peeling oS, later on entirely absent. 

Cork tissue or periderm. 

Cork cambium or phellogen. 

Sometimes zone of thin-walled cells containing chloroplasts cut off by 
cork cambium on inner face and known as phelloderm. 

Cortex — in perennial stem cells of cortex may undergo modification into 
mucilage cells, into tannin receptacles, crystal cells, spiral cells, etc. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


6. Fibro- vascular bundles of open collateral type which are now arranged 
into a compact circle, and between which are found primary and often 
secondary medullary rays. 

From without inward the following tissues make up f. v. bundles. 

Protophloem j Hard Bast — long tenacious bast fibers. 

Secondary Phloem [ Soft Bast — phloem cells and sieve tubes. 

Cambium — active layer giving rise to secondary phloem on outer and 
secondary xylem or inner face, and adding to depth of med. rays. 

Secondary xylem — wood fibers, pitted vessels, tracheids. 

Protoxylem — spiral tracheae. 

Pith. 


Fig. 44. — Portion of cross-section of four-year-old stem of Arislolochia sipho, as 
shown by the rings of growth in the wood. The lettters are the same as in Fig. 41 
but new tissues have been added by the activity of the cambium; and a cork cam- 
bium has arisen from the outermost collenchyma cells and given rise to cork. The 
new tissues are; l, cork cambium; k, cork; g, secondary phloem from the cambium, 
and just outside this is older crushed phloem; n, secondary xylem produced by 
the cambium; m, secondary medullary ray made by the cambium (notice that this 
does not extend to the pith). Half of the pith is shown. Notice how it has been 
crushed almost out of existence. Compare Figs. 41 and 44, tissue for tissue, to 
find out what changes the primary tissues undergo with age, and to what extent 
new tissues are added. Photomicrograph X 20. ( From Stevens.) 


io6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


EXCEPTIONAL TYPES OF DICOTYL STEMS 

In a number of Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, the secondary 
growth in thickness of the stem and frequently of the root differs from 
that which is found in the vast majority of species and so is called 
exceptional or anomalous. 

In Phytolacca, etc., there first arises a ring of primary bundles with 
broad loose medullary rays. Then the stem cambium ceases its 


Fig. 45. — White birch ( Betula populifolia) . Portion of a branch showing the 
prominent lenticels. (Gager.) 

activity and, outside the bast of the bundles already formed in the 
pericambium or tissue developing from it, a new cambium starts 
to lay down another ring of bundles in rather irregular fashion. 
Then after developing a wavy ring of bundles and connecting tissue 
that cambium closes up. Still another cambium ring arises without 
this, and in a single season quite a number of these are found succes- 
sively arranged in concentric fashion. 

In Gelsemium , species of Solanacece, Cambrel ace a, Cucurbitacece, 
etc., there arises a cambium on the inner face of the xylem which 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


107 

forms internal phloem (or intraxylary phloem ), thus giving rise to 
bicollateral bundles'. 

In Strychnos Nux Vomica internal phloem exactly as in Gelse- 
mium, etc., appears but in addition interxylary phloem is developed. 
In the wood region of this plant axis the cambium starts at a certain 
age to lay down patches of phloem which become wedged in between 
xylem tissue as interxylary phloem. 

Lenticels and Their Formation. — The epidermis in a great majority 
of cases produces stomata, apertures, surrounded by a pair of guard 
cells, which function as passages for gases and watery vapor from and 
to the active cells of the cortex beneath. 


Fig. 46. — Cross-section through a lenticel of Sambucus nigra. E, Epidermis; 
PH, phellogen; L, loosely disposed cells of the lenticel; PL, cambium of the 
lenticel; PS, phelloderm; C, cortical parenchyma containing chlorophyll. (From 
Sayre after Strasburger.) 


There very early originate in the region beneath the stomata 
loosely arranged cells from cork cambium which swell up during 
rain and rupture, forming convex fissures in the cork layer, called 
lenticels. 

The function of lenticels is similar to that of stomata, namely, 
to permit of aeration of delicate cells of the cortex beneath. 

Annual Thickening. — In all woody exogenous stems such as 
trees and shrubs the persistent cambium gives rise to secondary 
xylem thickening every spring, summer and autumn. Soon a great 
cylinder of xylem arises which constitutes the wood of the trunk and 
branches. In the spring, growth is more active, and large ducts 
with little woody fiber are produced while in summer and autumn 


io8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


growth is lessened and small ducts and much mechanical woody 
fiber are formed. Thus the open, loosely arranged product of the 
spring growth abuts on the densely arranged product of the last 
summer and autumn growth and the sharp contrast marks the 
periods of growth. To the spring, summer and autumn regions of 
growth of each year is given the term of “annual ring.” By count- 
ing the number of these rings it is possible to estimate the age of 
the tree or branch. 


Fig. 47. — Part of a transverse section of a twig of the lime, four years old. 
m, Pith; ms, medullary sheath; x, secondary wood; Ph, phloem; 2, 3, 4, annual 
rings; c, cambium; pa, dilated outer ends of medullary rays; b, bast; pr, primary 
cortex; k, cork. ( From Sayre after Vines.) 


Bark. — Bark or bork is a term applied to all that portion of a 
woody exogenous plant axis outside of the cambium line. 

In pharmacognic work, bark is divided into three zones, these 
from without inward being: , 

1. Outer Bark or Cork. 

2. Middle Bark or Cortical Parenchyme. 

3. Inner Bark or Phloem. 

Periderm. — Periderm is a name applied to all the tissue produced 
externally by the cork cambium ( P hello gen ). This term appears 
often in pharmacognic and materia medica texts. 

Phelloderm. — Phelloderm or secondary cortex is all that tissue 
produced by the cork cambium on its inner face. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


IO9 


U 


Fig. 48. — Part of a cross-section through branch of Cytisus laburnum. (The 
branch was cut from the tree at the end of October.) Frbm A to £ the last 
annual ring of wood; from A to £ the spring growth with large tracheal tubes 
( T , T, T)\ between B and C and D and D are wood-fibers; between C and D and 
D and E, wood parenchyma; from E to F, cambium; F to G. phloem portion; G to 
H, cortical parenchyma; M, medullary ray. Below A the last wood-fibers and 
wood parenchyma formed the previous year. ( From Sayre after Haberlandt.) 


I IO 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Histology of a Typical Bark, Cascara Sagrada. — In transverse 
section passing from outer to inner surface, the following structural 
characteristics are evident: 

1 . Cork, or outer bark, composed of several layers of rectangular 
cork cells. The most external layers are dead and appear black 
because they are filled with air. The inner layers of this region 
are living and contain brownish contents. 

2. Cork cambium (phellogen), a layer of delicate cells with pro- 
toplasmic contents in the process of division. 

3. Cortex, or middle bark, consisting of two regions, viz.: an outer 
zone of two or three rows of brownish collenchyme cells, and an 
inner broader zone of tangentially elongated cortical parenchyme 
cells. Imbedded within this zone will be noted numerous groups 
of stone cells. 

4. Phloem, or inner bark, a very broad zone composed of irregular- 
shaped elongated phloem masses separated from each other by me- 
dullary rays which converge in the outer phloem region. Each 
phloem mass consists of numerous sieve tubes and phloem cells, some 
of which latter contain spheroidal starch grains while others contain 
monoclinic prisms or rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate. Em- 
bedded within the phloem masses in tier-like fashion will be noted 
groups of bast fibers, each group of which is surrounded by a row 
of crystal fibers, individual cells of which can only be made out in 
this kind of a section. Each of these contains a monoclinic prism of 
calcium oxalate. The medullary rays possess brownish contents 
which take a red color with an alkaline solution. 

In radial longitudinal section a lengthwise view of the tissues will 
be seen. The medullary rays appear 15 to 25 cells in height and 
crossing at right angles to the other elements. The crystal fibers 
here will be seen to be composed of vertical rows of superimposed 
thin-walled cells each of which contains a monoclinic prism of 
calcium oxalate. The bast fibers appear elongated and taper ended 
and are associated with crystal fibers. 

In a tangential longitudinal section which has been cut through 
the phloem, the exact range in width of the medullary rays may be 
ascertained. In this bark the medullary rays are spindle-shaped 
in tangential view and one to four cells in width. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


III 


Wood.- — From a pharmacognic standpoint as well as that of the 
lumber trade, wood is all that portion of woody exogenous plant 
axes inside of the cambium line. In Dicotyl and Gymnosperm 
stems it therefore includes the xylem regions of the bundles, the 


st 


Fig. 49. — Photomicrograph of transverse section of Cascara Sagrada bark; 
k, cork; g, cork cambium; c, cortex; st, group of stone cells; bf, group of bast fibers; 
mr, medullary ray. 

xylem portions of the medullary rays and the pith, while in the roots 
of secondary growth of these plants it comprises the xylem portions 
of the bundles and the xylem medullary rays. 

As the cambium year after year adds new layers of wood to that 


1X2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


already present on its inner face, the conveying of sap and storing 
of starch, etc. is gradually relegated to the outer wood layers, since 


Pig. 50. — Diagrammatic representation of a block of pine wood highly mag- 
nified. a, Early growth; b, late growth; c, intercellular space; d, bordered pit in 
tangential wall of late growth; m, f and e, bordered pit in radial wall of early 
growth from different points of view; h, row of medullary cells for carrying food; 
g, row of medullary ray cells for carrying water; k, thin place in radial wall of ray 
cells that carry food. (From Stevens.) 


the inner layers, step by step, lose their protoplasmic contents and 
power of conducting sap and become filled with extractive, resinous 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


IJ 3 


and coloring matters. The outer whitish layers of wood which con- 
tain living cells, functioning in the vegetative processes of the plant, 
constitute the alburnum or sap-wood. The drug Quassia is a good 
example of this kind of wood. The inner dead colored layers con- 
stitute the duramen or heart-wood. Important examples of this 
kind of wood used in pharmacy are Lignum Guaiaci, Hasmatoxylum, 
and Santalum Album. 

Microscopic Characteristics of Angiospermous and Gymnosperm- 
ous Woods.— The wood of Angiosperms is characterized by the pres- 
ence of tracheae (vessels) with various 
markings on their walls, particularly by 
small pits in the walls of some of the 
tracheae, together with wood fibers, 
wood parenchyma and medullary rays. 

The wood of Gymnosperms is made 
up for the larger part of tracheids with 
bordered pits which latter are charac- 
terized in radial longitudinal section by 
the presence of two rings, one within 
the other. A single row of these is 
seen on the tracheid wall. Medullary 
rays, frequently diagnostic for different 
species and woody parenchyme cells, 
are also found. 

Histology of Typical Herbaceous Monocotyl Stems (Endogenous). 

— Passing from exterior toward center the following structures are 
seen: 


Fig. 51. — Photomicrograph 
of cross-section of very young 
cornstalk, where certain 
plerome strands have just 
gone over into vascular bun- 
dles. For comparison with 
Fig. 52. (Stevens.) 


1. Epidermis whose cells are cutinized in their outer walls. 

2. Hypodermis, generally collenchymatic. 

3. Cortex. 

4. Endodermis or innermost layer of cortex. 

5. A large central zone of parenchyme matrix in which are found 
scattered fibro-vascular bundles of the closed collateral or rarely 
concentric type (amphivasal). In this latter type, which is typical 
of old monocotyl stems, the xylem grows completely around phloem 
so that phloem is found in the center and xylem without and sur- 
rounding it. 

8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


114 

Histology of a Typical Woody Monocotyl Stem. — The stem of the 
Greenbrier, a woody monocotyl, will here be considered. In trans- 
verse section passing from periphery toward the center the following 
structural details will be noted: 

1. Epidermis, of a single layer of epidermal cells whose outer walls 
are strongly cutinized. Cutin is a wax-like substance which forms 
a protective coat to the epidermis, preventing the evaporation of 


Fig. 52. — Cross-section of cornstalk stem; a, epidermis; b, cortex and 
c, ground tissue. ( After Stevens.) 

water, the ingress of destructive parasites, and injury from insects. 

2. A cortex, composed of about ten or twelve layers of thick- walled 
parenchyme cells, the outer two or three layers of which are termed 
hypodermis. 

3. An endodermis , wavy in character and composed of endodermal 
cells whose brownish walls are strongly suberized. 

4. A sclerenchymatous cylinder sheath composed of somewhat 
separated masses of sclerenchymatous fibers and undeveloped fibro- 
vascular bundles of the closed collateral type. 

5. A central matrix of strongly thickened parenchyme cells in 
which are scattered, irregularly, numerous closed collateral bundles. 
Small starch grains will be found in the parenchyma cells. Examine 
a representative bundle, and note the two very large tracheae and 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 115 

several smaller ones in the xylem portion of the bundle which faces 
toward the center of the section. In the outer or phloem portion 
of the bundle will be seen an area of soft small-celled sieve tubes and 
phloem parenchyme. The entire bundle is enclosed by a several 


Fig. 53. — Photomicrograph of a representative portion of Greenbrier stem 
showing epidermis ( e.p .), cortex (c), endodermis ( e.n.d .). cylinder sheath ( c.s .), 
sclerenchyme fibers of closed collateral bundle ( b ), fundamental parenchyma 
( f.p .), trachea (/). X 22. 

layered ring of sclerenchyme fibers, which on the inner face are 
called wood fibers, on the outer, bast fibers. The wood fibers con- 
stitute the supporting elements of the xylem, while the bast fibers 
are the supporting elements of the phloem. 


ii6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


THE LEAF 

The leaf is a usually flattened, rarely semi-centric, or centric-lateral 
expanse developed by the stem or by branches and in whose axil one 
or more branches arise. 

Leaves seldom develop buds over their surface or along their 
margin and in connection therewith roots. The capacity for bud 
development is restricted to three families, viz.: Crassulacese, Be- 
goniaceae and Gesneraceae. 

Leaf Functions. — The most essential function of plants is the con- 
version of inorganic into organic matter; this takes place ordinarily 
in the green parts, containing chlorophyll, and in these when exposed 
to sunlight. Foliage is an adaptation for increasing the extent of 
green surface. 

The functions of a leaf are photosynthesis, assimilation, respiration 
and transpiration. 

Photosynthesis is the process possessed by all green leaves or other 
green parts of plants of building up sugar, starch or other complex 
organic substances by means of chlorophyll and sunlight. This 
process takes place in nature, only during sunlight. CO2 is taken 
in and O given off. 

Assimilation is the process of converting food materials into proto- 
plasm. 

Respiration or breathing is the gaseous interchange whereby all 
living organisms take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. 

Transpiration is the giving off of watery vapor. 

Types of Leaves Developed in Angiosperms. — These may be 
tabulated as follows: 

1. Cotyledons (the primitive or seed leaves). 

2. Scale leaves. 

3. Foliage leaves. 

4. Bract leaves: (a) primary at base of inflorescence; ( b ) bracteo- 
lar leaves at base of individual flowers. 

5. Sepals. 

6. Petals. 

7. Microsporophylls (stamens). 

8. Megasporophylls (carpels). 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


1 1 7 

Cotyledons. — Cotyledons are the first leaves to appear upon the 
ascending axis and are single in Monocotyledons, double in Dicoty- 
ledons. Occasionally, as in certain Maples, there may be three 
cotyledons shown. This is due to a splitting of one of the cotyledons. 
There exist no true cases of polycotyledony (development of many 
cotyledons) among Angiosperms as in Gymnosperms. In Mono- 
cotyledons the single cotyledon is a terminal structure and truly 
axial in relation to the hypocotyl and radicle. From a primitively 
Monocotyl-like ancestry Dicotyledons develop a second cotyledon 
on the Epicotyledonary node. Later, by a suppression of the second 
node the second cotyledon is brought to the level of the first. 

Scale Leaves. — Scale leaves are reduced foliage leaves. They are 
found on certain rhizomes, above ground stems, such as Dodder, 
etc., on bulbs, and forming the protective scales of scaly buds. 

Foliage Leaves. — These are the common green leaves so familiar 
to all. 

Bract leaves are modified leaves appearing on inflorescence axes. 

Sepals, petals, microsporophylls and megasporophylls are floral 
leaves and will be treated at length under the subject of the flower. 

Origin and Development of Leaves. — Leaves arise around the 
growing apex region of a stem or branch as lateral outgrowths, each 
consisting at first of a mass of cells called the primordial leaf. 
Through continued cell-division and differentiation of these cells in 
time the mature leaf is developed. The primordial leaf is formed 
by a portion of the dermatogen of the growing stem apex, which 
becomes epidermis, a portion of the periblem, producing mesophyll 
which grows into this, and a part of the plerome, which becomes 
vascular tissue within the mesophyll. 

In the sub-divisions of cells around the growing stem-apex, the 
primordial leaves (primordia) do not arise exactly at the same time. 
There is a tendency toward spiral arrangement. 

Phyllotaxy. — Phyllotaxy is the study of leaf arrangement upon 
the stem or branch, and this may be either alternate, opposite, 
whorled, or verticillate, or fascicled. It is a general law in the 
arrangement of leaves and of all other plant appendages that they 
are spirally disposed, or on a line which winds around the axis like 
the thread of a screw. The spiral line is formed by the union of 


ii8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


two motions, the circular and the longitudinal, and its most common 
modification is the circle. 

In the alternate arrangement there is but one leaf produced at 
each node. 

Opposite, when a pair of leaves is developed at each node, on 
opposite sides of the stem. Example: Mints, Lilac. 

Decussate, when the leaves are arranged in pairs successively 
along the stem, at right angles to each other. 

Whorled or Verticillate, when three or more form a circle about 
the stem. Example: Canada Lily and Culver’s root. 

Fascicled or T ufted, when a cluster of leaves is borne from a single 
node, as in the Larch and Pine. 

The spiral arrangement is said to be two-ranked when the third 
leaf is over the first, as in all Grasses; three-ranked, when the fourth 
is over the first. Example: Sedges. The five-ranked arrangement 
is the most common, and in this the sixth leaf is directly over the 
first, two turns being made around the stem to reach it. Example: 
Cherry, Apple, Peach, Oak and Willow, etc. As the distance be- 
tween any two leaves is two-fifths of the circumference of the stem, 
the five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction In 
the eight-ranked arrangement the ninth leaf stands over the first, 
and three turns are required to reach it, hence the fraction % ex- 
presses it. Of the series of fractions thus obtained, the numerator 

represents the number of turns 
to complete a cycle, or to reach 
the leaf which is directly over 
the first; the denominator, the 
number of perpendicular rows 
on the stem, or the number of 
leaves, counting along thd 
spiral, from any one to the one 
directly above it. 

Vernation.- — Prefoliation or Vernation relates to the way in which 
leaves are disposed in the bud. A study of the individual leaf 
enables us to distinguish the following forms. When the apex is bent 
inward toward the base, as in the leaf of the Tulip Tree, it is said to be 
inflexed or reclinate vernation; if doubled on the midrib so that 


convolute 


Fig. 54- — Three principal types of verna- 
tion. (Robbins.) 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


119 

the two sides are brought together as in the oak, it is conduplicate; 
when rolled inward from one margin to the other, as in the Wild 
Cherry, it is convolute; when rolled from apex to base, as in Ferns, it 
is circinate; when folded or plaited, like a fan as in Ricinus, Maples, 
Aralias, etc., it is plicate; if rolled inward from each margin, as the 
leaf of the common Violet, involute; when rolled outward from each 
margin as Rumex, revolute. The inner surface is always that which 
will form the upper surface when expanded. 


Fig. 55. — Stereogram of leaf structure. Part of a veinlet is shown on the right. 

Intercellular spaces are shaded. ( From Stevens.) 

The Complete Leaf.- — The leaf when complete consists of three 
parts, lamina , petiole, and stipules. The lamina or blade is the expan- 
sion of the stem into a more or less delicate framework, made up of 
the branching vessels of the petiole. 

The petiole is the leaf stalk. The stipules are leaf-like appendages 
appearing at the base of the petiole. 

The leaf of the Tulip Poplar or Liriodendron affords a good exam- 
ple of a Complete Leaf. 


120 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Sometimes the lamina or blade is attached directly to the stem 
by its base and is then said to be sessile. If the petiole is present, 
petiolate. 

When leaf stipules are absent, the leaf is said to be exstipulate, 
when present, stipulate. 

The petiole is seldom cylindrical in form, but usually channelled 
on the upper side, flattened, or compressed. The stipules are always 
in pairs and closely resemble the leaf in structure. 

The blade of the leaf consists of the framework, made up of branch- 
ing vessels of the petiole, which are woody tubes pervading the soft 
tissue called mesophyll, or leaf parenchyme, and serve not only as 
supports but as veins to conduct nutritive fluids. Veins are absent 
in simple leaves such as many of the Mosses. 

Leaf Venation. — Furcate or Forked Venation is characteristic of 
many Ferns. 

Parallel Venation is typical of the Monocotyledons, as Palms, 
Lilies, Grasses, etc. 

Reticulate or Netted Veins characterize the Dicotyledons, as the 
Poplar or Oak. 

Pinni-veined or Feathered-veined leaves consist of a mid-vein with 
lateral veinlets extending from mid-vein to margin at frequent 
intervals and in a regular manner. Example: Calla. 

Palmately Veined leaves consist of a number of veins of nearly the 
same size, radiating from petiole to margin. Example: Maple leaf. 

Veins are said to be anastomosing when they subdivide and join 
each other, as the veins near the margin of Eucalyptus leaves. 

Leaf Insertion. — The point of attachment of the leaf to the stem is 
called the insertion. A leaf is: 

Radical, when inserted upon an underground stem. 

Cauline, when upon an aerial stem. 

Ramal, when attached directly to a branch. 

When the base of a sessile leaf is extended completely around the 
stem it is perfoliate, the stem appearing to pass through the blade. 
Example: Uvularia perfoliata or Mealy Bellwort. 

When a sessile leaf surrounds the stem more or less at the base, 
it is called clasping or amplexicaul. Example: Poppy (Papaver 
somniferum). 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


1 2 1 


Fig. 56. — Leaf outlines: Linear (1); lanceolate (2); oblong (3); elliptical (4), 
ovate-lanceolate (5); oblanceolate (6); spatulate (7); obovate-lanceolate (8); 
orbicular (9); reniform (10); cuneate (11). 


122 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


When the bases of two opposite leaves are so united as to form 
one piece, they are called connate-perfoliate, as Eupatorium or 
Boneset. 

Leaves are called equitant when they are all radical and succes- 
sively folded on each other, as the Iris. 

The Forms of Leaves. — Simple leaves are those having a single 
blade, either sessile or petiolate. 

Compound leaves are divided into two or more distinct subdivi- 
sions called leaflets, which may be either sessile or petiolate. 

Simple leaves and the separate blades of compound leaves are de- 
scribed as to general outline, apex, base, marginal indentations, sur- 
face and texture. 

(a) General Outline (form viewed as a whole without regard to 
indentations of margin). Dependent upon kind of venation. 

When the lower veins are longer and larger than the others, the 
leaf is Ovate, or Egg-shaped. Example: Parallel- veined leaves are 
usually linear, long and narrow of nearly equal breadth throughout 
(Linaria), or lanceolate, like the linear with the exception that the 
broadest part is a little below the center. Example: Long Buchu. 

Elliptical, somewhat longer than wide, with rounded ends and 
sides. Example: Leaf of Pear. 

Oblong, when longer than broad, margins parallel. Example: 
Matico. 

Inequilateral, margin longer on one side than the other, as the 
Hamamelis, Elm and Linden. 

Orbicular, circular in shape. Example: Nasturtium. 

Peltate, or shield-shaped, having the petiole inserted at the center 
of the lower surface of the lamina. Example: Podophyllum. 

Filiform, or thread-like, very long and narrow, as Asparagus leaves. 

Ovate, broadly elliptical. Example: Digitalis. Obovate, reversely 
ovate. Example: Short Buchu. 

Oblanceolate, reversely lanceolate. Example: Chimaphila. 

Cuneate, shaped like a wedge with the point backward. 

Spatulate, like a spatula, with narrow base and broad rounded 
apex. Example: Uva Ursi. 

Ensiform, when shaped like a sword. Example: Calamus. 

Acerose or acicular, tipped with a needle-like point, as Juniper. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


123 


Fig. 57. — Leaf bases (12-17); leaf apices (18-26); compound leaves (27-31). 
Cordate (12); auriculate (13); connate-perfoliate (14); sagittate (15); hastate 
(16); peltate (17). Acuminate (18); acute (19; obtuse (20); truncate (21); retuse 
(22); emarginate (23; cuspidate (24); mucronate (25); aristate (26). Imparipin- 
nate (27); paripinnate (28); bi-pinnate (29); decompound (30; palmately 
5-foliate (31). 


124 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Deltoid, when the shape of the Greek letter A, as Chenopodium. 

( b ) Apex of Leaf. — Acute, when the margins form an acute angle 
at the tip of the leaf. Example: Eriodictyon. 

Acuminate, when the point is longer and more tapering than the 
acute. Examples: Pellitory, Coffee. 

Obtuse, blunt or round. Example: Long Buchu. 

Truncate, abruptly obtuse, as if cut square off. (Tulip Poplar). 
Mucronate, terminating in a short, soft point. Example: Senna 
leaflets. 

Cuspidate, like the last, except that the point is long and rigid. 
Aristate, with the apex terminating in a bristle. 

Emarginate, notched. Example: Pilocarpus. 

Reluse, with a broad, shallow sinus at the apex. Example: Petal 
of Rosa gallica. 

Obcordate, inversely heart-shaped. Example: Oxalis. 

(c) Base oi Leaf. — Cordate, heart-shaped. Example: Lime. 
Reniform, kidney-shaped. Examples: Ground Ivy, Asarum. 
Hastate, or halbert-shaped, when the lobes point outward from 

the petiole. Example: Aristolochia Serpentaria. 

Auriculate, having ear-like appendages at the base. Example: 
Philodendron. 

Sagittate, arrow-shaped. Example: Bindweed. 

(d) Margin of Leaf. — Entire, when the margin is an even line. 
Example: Belladonna. 

Serrate, with sharp teeth which incline forward like the teeth of a 
hand-saw. Example: Peppermint. 

Dentate, or toothed, with outwardly projecting teeth. Chestnut. 
Crenate, or Scalloped, similar to the preceding forms, but with the 
teeth much rounded. Examples: Digitalis, Salvia. 

Repand, or Undulate, margin — a wavy line. Example: Hamamelis. 
Sinuate, when the margin is more distinctly sinuous than the last. 
(Stamonium.) 

Incised, cut by sharp, irregular incisions. Example: Hawthorn. 
Runcinate, the peculiar form of pinnately incised leaf observed in 
the Dandelion and some other Compositae in which the teeth are 
recurved. 

A Lobed leaf is one in which the indentations extend nearly to the 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


125 


Fig. 58. — Leaf margins: Pinnately-lobed (32); pinnately-cleft (33) ; pinnately- 
parted (34); pinnately-divided (35); palmately tri-lobed (36); palmately tri-cleft 
(37): palmately 3-parted (38); palmately 3-divided (39); crenate (40); serrate 
(41); dentate (42); repand or undulate (43); sinuate-dentate (44). 


126 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


mid-vein, or mid-rib, as it is usually called, the segments or sinuses, 
or both, being rounded. Example: Sassafras. 

Cleft is the same as lobed, except that the sinuses are deeper, and 
commonly acute. Example: Dandelion. 

A Parted leaf is one in which the incisions extend nearly to the 
mid-rib. Example: Geranium maculatum. 

In the Divided leaf the incisions extend to the mid-rib, but the 
segments are not stalked. Example: Watercress. 

If the venation is pinnate, the preceding forms may be described 
as pinnately incised, lobed, parted, or divided. If the venation is 
radiate, then the terms radiately or palmately lobed, incised, etc., 
are employed. 

The transition from Simple to Compound Leaves is a very gradual 
one, so that in many instances it is difficult to determine whether a 
given form is to be regarded as simple or compound. The number 
and arrangement of the parts of a compound leaf correspond with 
the mode of venation, and the same descriptive terms are applied 
to outline, margin, etc., as in simple leaves. 

Leaves are either pinnately or palmately compounded. The term 
pinnate is frequently given to the former while that of palmate is 
often assigned to the latter. They are said to be abruptly pinnate 
or paripinnate when the leaf is terminated by a pair of leaflets; odd 
pinnate or imparipinnate when it terminates with a single leaflet. 
When the leaflets are alternately large and small, the leaf is inter- 
ruptedly pinnate, as the Potato leaf. When the terminal leaflet is 
the largest, and the remaining ones diminish in size toward the base 
the form is known as lyrate, illustrated in the leaf of the Turnip. 

Palmately compound leaves have the leaflets attached to the 
apex of the petiole. When these are two in number the leaf is 
bifoliate, or binate; if three in number, trifoliate, or ternate; when 
four in number, quadrifoliate, etc. If each of the leaflets of a pal- 
mately compound leaf divides into three, the leaf is called biternate; 
if this form again divides, a triternate leaf results. Beyond this 
point the leaf is known as decompound. In the case of pinnately- 
compound leaves, when division progresses so as to separate what 
would be a leaflet into two or more, the leaf becomes bipinnate, 
as the compound leaves of Acacia Senegal or on the new wood of 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


127 


Gleditschia; if these become again divided, as in many Acacia 
species, the leaf is termed tripinnate. Examples of decompound 
leaves seen in Cimicifuga and Parsley. 

Leaf Texture. — Leaves are described as: 

Membranous, when thin and pliable, as Coca. 

Succulent, when thick and fleshy, as Aloes, and Live Forever. 

Coriaceous, when thick and leathery, as Eucalyptus, Uva Ursi and 
Magnolia. 

Leaf Color. — Petaloid, when of some brilliant color different from 
the usual green, as the Coleus and Begonia, and other plants which 
are prized for the beauty of their foliage rather than their blossoms. 

Leaf Surface.— Any plant surface is: 

Glabrous, when perfectly smooth and free from hairs or protuber- 
ances. Example: Tulip. 

Glaucous, when covered with bloom, as the Cabbage leaf. 

Pellucid- punctate, when dotted with oil glands, as the leaves of 
the Orange family. 

Scabrous leaves have a rough surface with minute, hard points. 

Pubescent, covered with short, soft hairs. Example: Strawberry. 

Villose, covered with long and shaggy hairs. Example: Forget- 
me-not. 

Sericious, silky. Example: Silverleaf. 

Hispid, when covered with short, stiff hairs. Example: Borage. 

Tomentose, densely pubescent and felt-like, as the Mullein leaf. 

Spinose, beset with spines, as in the Thistle. 

Rugose, when wrinkled. Example: Sage. 

Verrucose, covered with protuberances or warts. 

Duration of Leaves. — Leaves vary as to their period of duration. 
They are: Persistent, or evergreen, if they remain green on the tree 
for a year or more. 

Deciduous, if unfolding in spring and falling in autumn. 

Caducous, or fugacious, if falling early in the season. 

Parts of Typical Leaf.- — The parts of a typical leaf are petiole or 
leaf stalk, lamina or blade, and stipules. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Petiole.— The petiole in 
Monocotyledons is usually a broadened, sheathing basal structure 
which connects the lamina to the stem. Into this a set of closed 


128 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


collateral vascular bundles of the stem extend, these showing xylem 
uppermost and phloem beneath; but in the Palmacece, Aracece, 
Dioscoreacece and Musaceee the petiole in part or throughout may be 
much thickened, strengthened and developed as a semi-cylindric or 
cylindric structure frequently showing, as in Palmacece , generally, 
two sets of bundles. In all of these the petiole shows distinct scat- 
tered closed collateral bundles embedded in parenchyme and sur- 
rounded by epidermis. In the Monocotyl genus Maranta a special 
swelling is found at the apex of the petiole which is termed a pulvinus. 

In Dicotyledons the petiole attains its most perfect development 
and here usually shows differentiation into a pulvinus or leaf cushion 
and stalk portion. The pulvinus is sensitive to environal stimuli 
and in some groups as Oxalidacece and Leguminosce a gradual increase 
in sensitivity up to a perfect response can be traced. Moreover, in 
these, if we start with the simpler less sensitive pulvini and pass by 
stages to the most complex we note that a special substance known 
as the aggregation body develops in the pulvinar cortex cells and 
that this substance undergoes rapid molecular change on stimulation 
of the leaf. The stalk portion of the petiole in Dicotyledons is usually 
plano-convex or nearly to quite circular in outline; rarely in certain 
families does it simulate Monocotyledons in becoming abruptly or 
gradually thinned or flattened or widened out so as to sheath round 
the stem. The most striking example of this is seen in the Umbel- 
liferce where the flattened sheathing leaf stalk is known as the peri- 
cladium. Such a structure is not peculiar to the Umbelliferce for in 
many Ranunculacece, etc., a similar sheathing development is ob- 
served. The stalk may bear the laminar tissue on its extremity. 
This is most commonly the rule, but when the plant is exposed to 
xerophytic conditions, as the Acacias of Australia, the stalk instead 
of being cylindric or sub-cylindric becomes flattened from side to 
side until there is produced a bifacial vertically placed petiole with 
a large green surface that wholly takes the place of the lamina. 

The petiolar structure in primitive types of Dicotyls resembles 
that seen in Monocotyls except that the bundles are more con- 
densed side by side. In these the petiole is somewhat dorsiventral, 
shows an external epidermis, a flattened cortex with a set of parallel 
vascular bundles each with xylem uppermost and phloem below. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


129 


From this we pass to another group in which the bundles form 
three-fourths of a circle and in which the upper bundles show incurv- 
ing orientation, to still another in which as in Nepenthes all of the 
bundles form nearly a cylinder. Finally in Ficus, Geranium, Podo- 
phyllum and other plants showing completely formed cylindric 
petioles, the bundles form a continuous ring enclosing pith and sur- 
rounded by cortex and epidermis as in Dicotyl stems. 

Stipules. — Stipules are lateral leafy or membranous outgrowths 
from the base of the petiole at its junction with the stem. They 
may be divided into two groups, viz.: lateral and axillary. The 
lateral group includes four types, namely, free lateral, lateral adnate, 
lateral connate and lateral interpetiolar. 

Free lateral stipules are seen in Leguminosce, Rosacea, Beeches, 
etc. They are free on either side of the petiole and supplied by 
vascular tissue from the petiolar bundle mass. In appearance and 
duration they may be either green, foliaceous and persistent or mem- 
branous to leathery, scale-like and caducous. Caducous scaly stip- 
ules only function as bud scales through the winter and fall in spring 
as the buds expand. 

Lateral adnate stipules are such as fuse with and are carried up 
with the petiole as wing-like appendages. This type is seen in the 
genus Rosa, in Clovers, etc. 

Lateral connate stipules are such as join and run up with the 
petiole to form a structure which is called a ligule. This structure 
is ‘common to the Graminaceae or Grass family. 

Lateral interpetiolar stipules are common to many species of the 
Rubiaceae. In the genus Cinchona the leaves are opposite and orig- 
inally had free lateral stipules which latter gradually fused with the 
stem, slid across it and adjacent stipules, then fused together to 
form a median structure on either side of the stem. 

The axillary group represent stipules which stand in the axil of 
the leaf with the stem. Such may be free axillary structures, arising 
as distinct processes or connate, when the two stipules unite at their 
margins and sheath the stem, as in many species of the Polygonaceae 
such as Buckwheat, Rhubarb, Yellow Dock, Knot Weeds, etc. The 
sheath formed is called an ochrea. 

Modified Stipules. — In some plants such as the Locust and several 


i3° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


other trees and shrubs of the Legume family, the stipules become 
modified for defensive purposes as spines or prickles. In the Sarsa- 
parilla-yielding plants and other species of the genus Smilax they 
undergo modification into tendrils which are useful in climbing. 

The Lamina. — This as was previously indicated represents an ex- 
pansion of the tissues of the petiole, but in sessile leaves is directly 
attached to the stem and so a direct stem outgrowth. 

Mode of Development of the Lamina of Leaves. — The lamina of 
leaves develops in one of six ways. 

1. Normal or Dorsoventral. 

2. Convergent. 

3. Centric. 

4. Bifacial. 

5. Reversed. 

6. Ob-dorsi-ventral. 

The first four will be considered. 

A. Dorsoventral (the commonest). 

(a) Dorsoventral Umbrophytic.- — Flattened from above downward. 
Plants with such leafblades tend to grow in the shade. 

(b) Dorsoventral Meso phytic. — Similar to the former, but plants 
usually grow directly in the open and exposed to sunlight and winds. 

(c) Dorsoventral Xerophytic. — Similar to former, but plants not 
only grow exposed, but exposed to hot desert conditions or to cold 
vigorous conditions. 

(, d ) Dorsoventral Hydro phytic. — All transitions between typiaal 
mesophytic forms to those of marshy places, to swamps and borders 
of streams and finally with leaves wholly emersed, the last a com- 
pletely hydrophytic type. 

Gross Structure and Histology of Different Types of Dorsoventral 
Leaf Blades. — 1. Umbrophytic. — Characterized by leaves mostly 
undivided and having the largest and most continuous leaf expanse. 
Usually the deepest green leaves we have, to enable the leaves to 
absorb scattered and reduced rays that pass in through high trees 
and shrub overhead. Their texture is usually thin and soft. In 
microscopic structure they are covered with a cutinized epidermis 
which has all the stomata on the lower surface. The mesophyll is 
fairly spongy, the spongy parenchyme having decided intercellular 


V s 

Fig. 59- — Photomicrograph of cross-section through a portion of the leaf of a 
xerophyte, Ficus elastica, showing upper epidermis ( u.e .), water storage tissue 
( w.s .), cystolith suspended on stalk within a cystolith sac ( cys ), palisade paren- 
chyma ( p.p . ), spongy parenchyma ( s.p .), vein (»), lower epidermis ( l.e .), and 
stoma (s). (Highly magnified.) 

ture, they consist of an upper and lower epidermis, the upper epider- 
mis being the thicker of the two. The stomata are wholly or are 
mainly on the lower epidermis. Hairs are seldom seen. The pali- 
sade mesophyll is toward the upper surface, the spongy mesophyll 
toward the lower. The intercellular air spaces in the spongy paren- 
chyma are small. 

3. Xerophytic. — Leaves characterized by a thick upper and lower 
cuticle and by having their numerous, small stomata restricted to 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 131 

spaces.. The lower epidermis is more or less hairy. Examples: 
Dog’s Tooth Violet, Asters. 

2. Mesophytic. — Leaves tend to subdivision, either to slight or 
moderate lobing, seldom to complete subdivision in pinnate or 
tripinnate fashion. Example: Dandelion. Tn microscopic struc- 


132 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


the lower surface or present more or less equally on both surfaces, 
where they are sunken in depressions. They may be either firm, 
leathery, tough, fibrous, or may become swollen up in their mesophyll 
chiefly in their spongy parenchyme cells and store considerable 
mucilage. Examples: Yucca, Ficus, Aloe, Agave. Succulent forms 
like Aloe generally possess a thin but tenacious cuticle. 

4. Hydrophytic. — All gradations are seen. In pond plants, such 
as the Water Lily, the leaves have long split petioles which bring 
the blade up to the surface of the water. The stomata are entirely 


Fig. 60. — Photomicrograph of dorsoventral leaf*of Myrica showing upper epi- 
dermis (u.e.), palisade parenchyma (p.p.), vein (v), spongy parenchyma (s.p.), 
lower epidermis (l.e.), glandular-hairs (g) and stoma (5). (Highly magnified.) 

on the upper surface. In Ranunculus, the lower leaves are cut up 
into filiform segments. These are devoid of stomata. Their meso- 
phyll is soft, open, and spongy. The epidermis is quite thin. The 
upper leaves are floating, trilobed, and have stomata only on their 
upper surface. In Utricularia, some of the filiform submerged leaves 
are modified into bladders which trap insect larvae and smaller 
Crustaceae. 

B. Convergent. — In Phormium tenax, the base of the blade is 
sheathing, it then converges and opens out above. In the various 
species of Iris the petiole is sheathing, the upper part being fused 
(mostly seen in monocotyls). 

C. Centric. — Succulent. — Nearly always associated with Xero- 
phytes. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


133 


Xerophytic .— Centric laminae are produced gradually by an en- 
croachment of the under on the upper surface, and the swelling of the 
whole. In a completely centric leaf of the succulent kind, like that 
of Sedum, the difference between the upper and lower surface is lost. 
Stomata are found scattered over the entire epidermis. The bundles 

o.r. ep. v p.p. 


are arranged in a circle, the mid-rib being in the center. A great 
deal of mucilage is found stored in the central cells. In a typical 
Xerophytic Centric leaf, like that of the Pine or Sanseviera cylindrica , 
the epidermis shows a thick cuticle; the stomata are sunken in cavi- 
ties of the epidermis; the epidermis and leaf tissue are strengthened 
by scleroid bands in the centric mesophyll. 


ep. p.p. 

Pig. 61. — Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a bifacial leaf of Eucalyp- 
tus globulus showing epidermis (ep.), palisade parenchyma (p.p.), toward both 
surfaces, spongy parenchyma ( s.p .), vein (v), and oil reservoir (o.r.) lined with 
secretory epithelium. (Highly magnified.) 


134 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


D. Bifacial. — Leaves with laminae which stand edge on in relation 
to the sun’s rays. The best illustrations are seen among dicotyle- 
dons, such as Eucalyptus, Callistemnon, and other genera of Myrtaceae. 
Both surfaces are similar, having stomata about equal in number. 
The mesophyll is differentiated into a central spongy parenchyme 
containing bundles, and a zone of palisade cells on either side facing 
the surfaces. 

Structure and Development of Stomata.— Stomata are slit-like 

openings in the epidermis of leaves or young green stems surrounded 
by a pair of cells called guard cells whose sides opposite one another 
are concave. They form a communication between the intercellular- 
air-space (respiratory cavity) beneath them and the exterior. The 
slit-like opening taken with the guard cells, constitutes what is known 
as the stomatal apparatus. 

The epidermal cells which abut on the stomatal apparatus are 
called neighboring cells or subsidiary cells. These in many cases, as 
in species of Helleborus, Sambucus, Hyacinthus, Pceonia, Ferns, etc., 
are very similar to the other epidermal cells but in a large number of 
plants they differ in size, arrangement and shape from the other cells 
of the epidermis which do not abut upon the stomatal apparatus. In 
Senna they are two in number one larger than the other and arranged 
parallel to the guard cells of the stoma; in Coca a similar arrangement 
occurs but the cells are more even in size, nevertheless they lack the 
characteristic papillae found on the other epidermal cells; in Pilo- 
carpus they are usually four in number but quite narrow and more or 
less crescent-shaped; in Uva Ursi their number is usually seven to 
eight and their arrangement radial around the stomatal apparatus. 

On all dorsoventral leaves, the stomata arise more abundantly on 
the lower epidermis, less abundantly on the upper. Exceptions to 
this rule are due to the peculiar readaptation of the leaf to its sur- 
roundings. Thus, in the reversed types of leaves (twisted in a half 
circle) the stomata, formerly on the lower surface, have migrated to 
the upper surface which now has become the physiological lower 
surface. 

In Umbrophytic (shade) plants the stomata are either wholly on 
the lower surface or partly so with a number on the upper surface. 
Where the plants are Mesophytic and exposed to dense sunlight and 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


135 


leaves remain dorsiventral, the stomata are on the lower surface; 
these stomata are large, if the surroundings are damp. If such plants 
live in dry soil and dry air, the stomata are of small size and numer- 
ous; if they dwell in dry soil in hot surroundings and dense light they 
are very small and frequently sunk. If the plants are Xerophytic 
and the leaves dorsoventral, the stomata are quite abundant, small, 
with narrow slit, and depressed below the level of the epidermis. 

There are live types of stomatal development, viz.: 

First Type. — Each primitive epidermal cell (or the majority, or 
only certain ones of the epidermis) at the close of the dermatogen 
stage, gradually lengthens and then cuts off a smaller from a larger 
cell. The smaller one is equilateral, has a very large nucleus, and is 
termed the Stoma Mother-cell; the larger, quadrangular, and called 
the Epidermal Daughter-cell. The latter, upon maturing, becomes a 
normal epidermal cell. A partition is laid down lengthwise through 
the Stoma Mother-cell dividing it into two stomatal daughter-cells. 
The wall laid down lengthwise splits and thus forms the orifice of the 
stoma; the cells on either side of the orifice are called Guard Cells. 
These, while at first flat and inoperative, soon become bulged and 
crescent-shaped. This mode of development is seen in Squill, 
Hyacinth, Daffodil, Sambucus, Silene, etc. 

Second Type. — After the cutting off of the stomal mother-cell there 
are cut off on either side portions of neighboring epidermal cells which 
form subsidiary cells to the stoma. This condition is seen in Gram- 
inacece, Cyperacece, Juncacece, in various species of Aloe, Musa and 
Proteacece. 

Third Type .- — Instead of two parallel subsidiary cells, four are cut 
off, as in Heliconia, in species of Tradescanlia, Araucaria, or four to 
five, as in Ficus elastica, or four to five or more, as in the Coniferce 
and Cycads. 

Fourth Type.- — Instead of only four subsidiary cells, each of these 
again subdivides by parallel walls, more rarely by radial walls, into 
eight radiating subsidiary cells, as in Maranta bicolor, Pothos argyraa, 
some of Proteacece, etc. 

Fifth Type . — The “stomal mother-cell” divides once or several 
times before becoming the true mother-cell of the stoma. As a 
result of the divisions there are also formed one or more subsidiary 


13 6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


cells. This mode of development is seen in theLabiat(e,Papilionace(E, 
Crucifertz , Solanacea, Crassulacece, Cactacecz, and Begoniacece, also 
in a number of ferns. 

Histologic Differences between Leaves of Dicotyledsuo and 
Monocotyledons. — The following may be cited as broad compara- 
tive histologic differences between Dicotyl and Monocotyl leaves: 


Dicotyl Leaves 

1. Epidermal cells usually iso-dia- 

metric or sinuous. 

2. The stomata are on the whole more 

numerous but smaller. 

3. Non-glandular and glandular hairs 

frequent on upper but more fre- 
quent on lower surface, or both. 

4. Leaf glands which excrete varied 

products are rather abundant. 

5. Water stomata over the upper sur- 

face, more rarely over the lower 
surface, are frequent, especially 
along margins of leaves. 

6. Palisade and spongy parenchyma 

in dicotyledons are more distinct 
and palisade parenchyma is 
denser. 

7. The vascular bundles, in their in- 

trinsic elements, are more indur- 
ated but the accessory fibrous 
sheath is feebly developed. 

8. A greater variety of accessory prod- 

ucts of assimilation are de- 
veloped. 


Monocotyl Leaves 

1. Epidermal cells usually elongate 

and equilateral. 

2. Stomata larger. 

3. Hairs rare in Monocotyls. 

4. Leaf glands rare and only seen as a 

rule on the sepals. 

5. Water stomata absent or very rare. 

Present in some Aracetz. 

6. Palisade and spongy parenchyma 

is less distinct and dense. 

7. The vascular bundles, in their in- 

trinsic elements, are less indur- 
ated. The fibrous sheath is 
strongly developed. 

8. A comparatively small variety of 

accessory products of assimila- 
tion are developed. 


INFLORESCENCE 

Inflorescence or Anthotaxy. — A typical flower consists of four 
whorls of leaves modified for the purpose of reproduction, and com- 
pactly placed on a stem. The terms Inflorescence and Anthotaxy are 
applied to the arrangement of the flowers and their position on the 
stem, both of which are governed by the same law which determines 
the arrangement of leaves. For this reason flower buds are always 
either terminal or axillary. In either case the bud may develop a 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


137 


solitary flower or a compound inflorescence consisting of several 
flowers. 

Determinate, cymose, descending, or centrifugal inflorescence is that 
form in which the flower bud is terminal, and thus determines or 
completes the growth of the stem. Example: Ricinus communis. 

Indeterminate, ascending, or centripetal inflorescence is that form in 
which the flower buds are axillary, while the terminal bud continues 
to develop and increase the growth of the stem indefinitely. Exam- 
ple: the Geranium. 

Mixed inflorescence is a combination of the other two forms. 
Example: Horse Chestnut. 


Fig. 62. — Types of indeterminate inflorescence. A, A raceme; B, a spike; C, a 
catkin; D, a corymb; E, an umbel. The flowers are represented by circles; the 
age of the flower is indicated by the size. ( From Hamaker.) 


Tht flower stalk is known as the peduncle, and its prolongation the 
rachis, or axis of the inflorescence. 

The flower stalk of a single flower of an inflorescence is called a 
pedicel. When borne without such support the flower is sessile. 

A peduncle rising from the ground is called a scape, previously 
mentioned under the subject of stems. 

The modified leaves found on peduncles are termed bracts. These 
vary much the same as leaf forms, are described in a similar manner, 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


138 


and may be either green or colored. When collected in a whorl at 
the base of the peduncle they form an involucre, the parts of which 
are sometimes imbricated or overlapping, like shingles. This is gen- 
erally green, but sometimes petaloid, as in the Dogwood. The 

modified leaves found on pedi- 
cels are called bradeolar leaves. 

The Spat he is a large bract en- 
veloping the inflorescence and 
often colored, as in the Calla, or 
membranous, as in the Daffodil. 

Indeterminate Inflores- 
cences. — In the indeterminate 
or axillary anthotaxy, either 
flowers are produced from base 
to apex, those blossoming first 
which are lowest down on the 
rachis or from margin to center. 
The principal forms of this 
type are: 

Solitary Indeterminate. — The 
simplest form of inflorescence 
in which a single flower springs 
from the axil of a leaf. A 
number of these are generally 
developed on the same stem. 
Example: Periwinkle. 

Raceme, or simple flower- 
cluster in which the flowers on 
pedicels of nearly equal length 
are arranged along an 'axis. 
Examples: Convallaria, Cimi- 
cifuga, and Currant. 

Corymb, a short, broad cluster, differing from the raceme mainly in 
its shorter axis and longer lower pedicels, which give the cluster a 
flat appearance by bringing the individual florets to nearly the same 
level. Example: Cherry. 

Umbel, which resembles the raceme, but has a very short axis, and 


ax 


Pig. 63. — Photomicrograph of longi- 
tudinal section, through a staminate 
catkin of Comptonia asplenifolia X 10, 
showing catkin axis (ax), anther-lobe 
(a), and bract (b). 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


139 


the nearly equal pedicels radiate from it like the rays of an umbrella. 
Many examples of this mode of inflorescence are seen in the family 
Umbelliferce, as indicated by the name, including Anise, Fennel and 
other drug-yielding official plants. 

A Spike is a cluster of flowers, sessile or nearly so, borne on an 
elongated axis. The Mullein and common Plantain afford good 
illustrations. 

The Catkin or Ament resembles the Spike, but differs in that it has 
scaly instead of herbaceous bracts, as the staminate flowers of the 
Oak, Hazel, Willow, Comptonia, etc. 

The Head or Capitulum is like a spike, except that it has the rachis 
shortened, so as to form a compact cluster of sessile flowers, as in the 
Dandelion, Marigold, Clover, and Burdock. 

The Strobile is a compact flower cluster with large scales concealing 
the flowers, as the inflorescence of the Hop. 

The Spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis with flowers closely sessile or 
embedded on it, usually with a spathe or sheathing bract. Example: 
Calla, Acorus Calamus, Arum triphyllum . 

The compound raceme, particularly if irregularly compounded, is 
called a panicle. 

Determinate Inflorescences. — Determinate Anthotaxy is one in 
which the first flower that opens is the terminal one on the axis, the 
other appearing in succession from apex to base or from center to 
margin. The principal varieties are: 

The Solitary Determinate, in which there is a single flower borne 
on the scape, as in the Anemone, or Windflower, and Hydrastis. 

The Cyme, a flower cluster resembling a corymb, except that the 
buds develop from center to circumference. Example: Elder. If 
the cyme be rounded, as in the Snowball, it is a globose cyme. 

A Scorpoid Cyme imitates a raceme, having the flowers pedicelled 
and arranged along a lengthened axis. 

A Glomerule is a cymose inflorescence of any sort which is con- 
densed into a head, as the so-called head of Cornus florida. 

A V erticillaster is a compact, cymose flower cluster which resembles 
a whorl, but really consists of two glomerules situated in the axils 
of opposite leaves. Clusters of this kind are seen in Catnip, Hore- 
hound, Peppermint and other plants of the Labiatce. 


140 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The raceme, corymb, umbel, etc., are frequently compounded. 
The compound raceme, or raceme with branched pedicels, is called a 
panicle. Examples: Yucca and paniculate inflorescence of the oat. 

A Thyrstis is a compact panicle, of a pyramidal or oblong shape. 
Examples: Lilac, Grape and Rhus glabra. 

A Mixed Anthotaxy is one in which the determinate and indeter- 
minate plans are combined, and illustrations of this are of frequent 
occurrence. 


Fig. 64. — Cymose inflorescences. F, A terminal flower; G, a simple cyme; H, 
a compound cyme. ( From Hamaker.) 


The order of flower development is termed ascending when, as in 
the raceme, the blossoms open first at the lower point on the axis and 
continue to the apex. Examples: WhiteLily, and many other plants 
of the same family. In the cyme the development is centrifugal, the 
central florets opening first, while in the corymb it is centripetal, or 
from margin to center. 

PREFLORATION 

Prefloration. — By prefloration is meant the arrangement of the 
floral envelopes in the bud. It is to the flower bud what vernation is 
to the leaf bud, the same descriptive terms being largely employed, as 
convolute, involute, revolute, plicate, imbricate, etc. 

In addition to those already defined, the following are important. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


141 


V ah ale Prefloration , in which the margins meet but do not over- 
lap. Of this variety the induplicate has its two margins rolled 
inward as in Clematis. In the reduplicate they are turned outward, 
as the sepals of Althaea. 

Vexillary, the variety shown in the corolla of the Pea, where the 
two lower petals are overlapped by two lateral ones, and the four in 
turn overlapped by the larger upper ones. 

Contorted, where one margin is invariably exterior and the other 
interior, giving the bud a twisted appearance, as in the Oleander and 
Phlox. 


THE FLOWER 


The flower is a shoot which has undergone a series of changes so as 
to serve as a means for the propagation of the individual. 


Fig. 65. — Diagrams of floral structures. A, Shows the relations of the floral 
parts inja hypogynous flower; B, the same in a perigynous flower; C, the same 
in an epigynous flower; D, a stamen; E, a simple pistil in longitudinal section; 
F, the same in cross-section; G, transitional forms between true petals (left) and 
true stamensi/right) ; H, slight union of two carpels to form a compound pistil; 
/ and J, union of carpels more complete; K and L, cross-sections of compound 
pistils, of three carpels. In) 3 : a, stamen; b, petal; c, sepal; d, pistil; e, receptacle; 
/, pedicel. In D: a, anther cell; b, connective; c, filament. In E: a, stigma; 
b, style; c, ovules; d, ovary. ( From Hamaker.) 

A Typical or Complete Flower possesses four whorls of floral leaves 
arranged upon a more or less shortened stem axis called a receptacle, 
torus or thalamus. These whorls passing from periphery toward the 


142 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


center are: calyx , composed of parts called sepals; corolla , composed 
of parts termed petals; andr cerium, composed of parts called stamens 
or microsporopylls; and gyncecium, composed of one or more parts 
termed carpels or megasporophylls. 

The stamens and carpels constitute the essential organs, and a 
flower is said to be Perfect when these are present and functional. 

A Hermaphrodite flower is one which possesses both stamens and 
carpels which may or may not be functionally active. In some cases 
the stamens may alone be functional while in others the carpels only 
may function. 

A Regular Flower possesses parts of each whorl of the same shape 
and size, as the flower of Veratrum. 

It is Symmetrical when the parts of each whorl are of the same 
number, or multiples of the same number. 

An Imperfect Flower shows one set of essential organs wanting. 

When either petals or sepals, or both, are present in more than the 
usual number, the flower is said to be “ double,” as the cultivated 
Rose and Carnation. The doubling of flowers is brought about 
through cultivation and is due either to the transformation of sta- 
mens (as in cases cited), and occasionally of carpels into petals, to a 
division of the petals, or to the formation of a new series of petals. 

If the pistils are present and stamens wanting, the flower is called 
pistillate, or female; if it possesses stamens but no pistil, it is described 
as staminate, or male; if both are absent, neutral, as marginal flowers 
of Viburnum. Some plants, as the Begonias and Castor oil bear 
both staminate and pistillate flowers, and are called Monoecious. 
When the staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different 
plants of the same species, they are termed Dioecious, as the Sassafras 
and Willow. When staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers 
are all borne on one plant, as on the Maple trees, they are polygamous. 

Connation and Adnation. — In the development of the flowers of 
primitive species of flowering plants, the parts of each whorl are dis- 
joined or separate from each other. In many higher types, however, 
the parts of the same whorl frequently become partly or completely 
united laterally. This condition is termed connation, coalescence, 
cohesion or syngenesis. Illustrations of this may be seen in Bella- 
donna, Stramonium and Uva Ursi flowers, where the petals have 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


143 


joined laterally to form gamopetalous corollas. When the one or 
more parts of different whorls are united, as of stamens with petals 
(. Rhammus ) or stamens with carpels ( Apocynum ) the union is called 
adnation or adhesion. 

The Receptacle. — The Receptacle , Torus or Thalamus is a more or 
less shortened axis (branch) which bears the floral leaves. It is 
usually flat or convex, but may be conical and fleshy as in the Straw- 
berry, concave as in the Rose and Fig or show a disc-like modifica- 
tion as in the Orange. The internodes of the receptacle in many 
species lengthen and separate various whorls. When the lengthen- 
ing of the internode occurs between calyx and corolla as in Lychnis 
the structure resulting is called an anthophore; if between corolla and 
androecium as in Passiflora, a gonophore; if between androecium and 
gynoecium as in Geum, a gynophore. If the flowers of the Umbel- 
liferce the receptacle elongates between the carpels producing the 
structure called a carpophore. 

The Perigone.- — The perigone or perianth is the floral envelope 
consisting of calyx and corolla (when present). 

When both whorls, i.e., calyx and corolla, are present the flower is 
said to be dichlamydeous; if only calyx is present, monochlamydeous. 

The Calyx. — The Calyx is the outer whorl of modified leaves. Its 
parts are called Sepals, and may be distinct (Chorisepalous, from a 
Greek word meaning disjoined) or more or less united (Gamosep- 
alous). They are usually green — foliaceous or leaf-like — but may 
be brilliantly colored, hence the term petaloid (like the petals) is 
applied. Examples: Tulip, Larkspur, Columbine and Aconite. 

In a gamosepalous calyx, when the union of sepals is incomplete, 
the united portion is called the tube, the free portion, the limb, the 
orifice of the tube, the throat. 

In form the calyx may be regular or irregular; regular, if its parts 
are evenly developed, and irregular if its parts differ in size and shape. 
The more common forms are tubular, resembling a tube; rotate, or 
wheel-shape; campanulate, or bell-shaped; urceolate, or urn-shape; 
hypocrateriform, or salver-shape; bilabiate, or two-lipped; corres- 
ponding to the different forms of corolla, under which examples 
illustrating each will be given. 

The calyx usually remains after the corolla and stamens have 


144 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


fallen, sometimes even until the fruit matures — in either case it is 
said to be persistent. If it falls with the corolla and stamens, it is de- 
cidous, and if when the flower opens, caducous, as in the Poppy and 
May-apple. It often more or less envelops the ovary or base of the 
pistil, and it is important, in plant analysis, to note the presence or 
absence of such a condition, which is indicated in a description by the 
terms inferior, or non-adherent (hypogynous), when free from the 
ovary and inserted upon the receptacle beneath it (the most simple 
and primitive position); half-superior, or half-adherent (perigynous), 
when it partially envelops the ovary, as in the Cherry; superior or 
adherent (epigynous), when it completely envelops it, as in the 
Colocynth, etc. 

Sepaline Spurs. — Occasionally some or all of the sepals may 
become pouched and at length spurred as nectar receptacles or as 
receptacles for other parts that are nectariferous. Thus, in Cru- 
cifers we occasionally see a slight pouching of the two lateral sepals. 
These act as nectar pouches for the nectar secreted by the knobs or 
girdles surrounding the short lateral stamens. These become deep 
pouches in Lunaria while in others the pouches become elongated 
spurs. Again, in Delphinium, the posterior sepal forms an elongated 
spur into which pass the two spurred nectariferous petals. In 
Aconitum the same sepal, instead of being spurred, forms an enlarged 
hood-like body (galea) arching over the flower like a helmet; into this 
pass the two hammer-shaped nectariferous petals. 

Sepaline Stipules.- — These structures are well developed and easily 
traceable in the more primitive herbaceous members of the Rose 
family. Thus in Potentilla, Fragaria, Geum, etc., in addition to the 
normal calyx of five sepals, there is a supplementary epicalyx also of 
five parts. The five lobes of the epicalyx may be as large or larger 
than the sepals or smaller up to the disappearing point. Upon 
examining a few flowers of Potentilla or Fragaria, it will be observed 
that not infrequently one, sometimes two lobes of the epicalyx are 
bifid, or deeply cleft, or separated completely into two parts. The 
explanation is that the five sepals after evolving in the flower bud 
form at their bases two lateral swellings or sepaline stipules, which, as 
they grow, fuse in adjacent pairs, one stipule of one sepal joining 
with the adjacent stipule of another sepal to form five lobes. 


\ 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


145 


Sepaline Position.- — As already noted the most simple and primi- 
tive position for the sepals in relation to the floral parts is hypogy- 
nous, in which the sepals are inserted directly into the enlarged floral 
axis (receptacle) below the petals, stamens and carpels. But in the 
more primitive herbaceous Rosacea, Leguminosa, etc., the floral 
axis forms a saucer-like transverse expansion which pushes out the 
sepals, petals and stamens on its edge. Thus originates the perigy- 
nous insertion of the sepals. In not a few higher Rosacea, Saxifraga- 
cea, Crassulacea, etc., the saucer-like floral axis becomes deepened 
and contracted into a cup-shaped structure (Cherry, Peach, Almond, 
Plum, etc.), and on the edge of this cup the sepals as well as the petals 
and stamens are inserted at different levels. Finally, in the Apple, 
Pear, Quince, etc., the greatly hollowed-out receptacle assumes a 
vase-shaped form and closes over the top of the ovary, at the same 
time lifting the sepals, petals, and stamens above the ovary. Here 
the sepals are epigynous. 

The Corolla. — The Corolla is the inner floral envelope, usually 
delicate in texture, and showing more or less brilliant colors and 
combinations of color. Its parts are called Petals, and when the 
calyx closely resembles the corolla in structure and coloring they 
are together called the Perianth. The purpose of these envelopes 
is to protect the reproductive organs within, and also to aid in the 
fertilization of the flower, as their bright colors, fragrance and sac- 
charine secretions serve to attract pollen-carrying insects. 

Forms of the Corolla and Perianth. — When the petals are not 
united with each other, the corolla is said to be Choripetalous, Apo- 
petalous or P oly petalous . When more or less united, they are Gamo- 
petalous, often called Synpetalous. 

When the distinct petals are four in number, and arranged in the 
form of a cross, the corolla is called Cruciform. Example: Mustard 
and other plants belonging to the order Cruciferae. 

The Papilionaceous corolla is so called because of a fancied resem- 
blance to a butterfly. The irregularity in this form is very striking, 
and the petals bear special names: the largest one is the vexillum, or 
standard; the two beneath it the ala, or wings; the two anterior, the 
carina or keel. Examples: Locust, Pea, and Clover. 

Orchidaceous flowers are of peculiar irregularity, combining calyx 
10 


146 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


and corolla. The petal in front of stamen and stigma, which differs 
from the others in form and secretes nectar, is called the Labellum. 
Examples: Cypripedium and other Orchids. 

When calyx and corolla each consist of three parts closely resem- 
bling each other in form and color, as in the Tulip and Lily, the 
flower is called Liliaceous. 

The Ligulate or Strap-shaped corolla is nearly confined to the 
family Compositse. It is usually tubular at the base, the remainder 
resembling a single petal. Examples : Marigold, and Arnica Flowers. 

Labiate, or Bilabiate, having two lips, the upper composed of two 
petals, the lower one of three. This form of corolla gives the name 
to the Labiatce, while in the family Leguminosoe this arrangement is 
sometimes reversed. The corolla may be either ringent, or gaping, 
as in Sage, or personate, when the throat is nearly closed by a projec- 
tion of the lower lip, as in Snapdragon. 

Rotate, Wheel-shaped, when the tube is short and the divisions of 
the limb radiate from it like the spokes of a wheel. Example: The 
Potato blossom. 

Crateriform, Saucer-shaped, like the last, except that the margin 
is turned upward or cupped. Example: Kalmia latifolia (Mt. 
Laurel). 

Hypocrateriform, or Salver-shaped (more correctly, hypocrateri- 
morphous), when the tube is long and slender, as in Phlox or Trail- 
ing Arbutus and abruptly expands into a flat limb. The name is 
derived from that of the ancient Salver, or hypocraterium with the 
stem or handle beneath. 

When of nearly cylindrical form, the corolla is Tubular, as in the 
Honeysuckle, and Stramonium. 

Funnel-form (Infundibuliform), such as the corolla of the common 
Morning Glory, a tube gradually enlarging from the base upward 
into an expanded border or limb. 

Campanulate, or Bell-shaped, a tube whose length is not more 
than twice the breadth, and which expands gradually from base to 
apex. Examples: Canterbury Bell, Harebell. 

Urceolate, or urn-shaped, when the tube is globose in shape and 
the limb at right angles to its axis, as in the official Uva Ursi, Chima- 
phila and Gaultheria. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


147 


Caryophyllaceous, when the corolla consists of five petals, each 
with a long slender claw expanding abruptly at its summit into a 
broad limb. Examples: Carnation and other members of the Pink 
family. 

The Andrcecium or Stamen System. — The andr cerium is the single 
or double whorl of male organs situated within or above the corolla. 
It is composed of stamens or micros porophylls. 

A complete stamen consists of a more or less slender stalk portion 
called & filament and a terminal appendage called the anther or micro- 
sorns. The anther is generally vertically halved by an upgrowth of 
the filament called the connective, dividing the anther into two lobes. 

Number of Stamens. — When few in number, stamens are said 
to be definite; when very numerous, and not readily counted, they 
are indefinite. The following terms are in common use to express 
their number: 

Monandrous, for a flower with but one stamen. 

Diandrous, with two stamens. 

Triandrous, with three. 

Tetrandrous , with four. 

Pentandrous, having five. 

Hexandrous, six. 

Polyandrous, an indefinite number. 

The most primitive flowers have numerous stamens but passing 
from these to those of more evolved families there occurs a gradual 
reduction from many to ten, as in Caryophyllacece, Leguminosce and 
some Aceracece, these being in two circles. In Malvacece, Umbelliferce 
and other Apopetalous families as well as many Sympetalae, the 
number five is typical. But in Scroplmlariacece, while five are devel- 
oped and fertile in Verbascum, four with a fifth staminode (sterile 
stamen) are found in the allied genus Celsia. In Pentstemon there 
are four didynamous fertile stamens and an equally long staminode. 
In Scrophularia the fifth staminode is reduced to a petaloid flap in 
the posterior part of the flower. In Linaria this exists only as a 
small knob at the base of the back part of the corolla and there 
secretes nectar. In most Scroplmlariacece the fifth stamen is entirely 
absent and the four stamens left are didynamous; but in Calceolaria 
two of these are rudimentary and thread-like, the other two alone 


148 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


being well-developed and fertile. In Veronica three stamens are 
entirely absorbed and two only are left as fertile representatives. 

Insertion of Stamens. — As to insertion the stamens may be: 

Hypogynous , when inserted upon the receptacle below the base of 
the pistil. 

Perigynous, when inserted on the calyx or corolla above the base of 
and lateral to the pistil. 

Epigynous, when inserted above the ovary. 

Gynandrous, when inserted upon the pistil, as in Orchids and Aris- 
tolochia. 

Proportions of the Stamens. — The stamens may be of equal length; 
unequal, or of different length. 

Didynamous , when there are two pairs, one longer than the other. 
Example: Snapdragon. 

Tetradynamous , three pairs, two of the same length, the third 
shorter. Example: Mustard. 

Connation of Stamens. — Terms denoting connection between sta- 
mens are: 

Monad el phous (in one brotherhood), coalescence of the filaments 
into a tube. Example: Lobelia. 

Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), coalescence into two sets. 
Example: Glycyrrhiza. 

Triadel phous, with filaments united into three sets. Example: 
St. John’s Wort. 

Polyadelphous, when there are several sets or branched bundles. 
Example: Orange. 

Syngenesious, when the anthers cohere. Example: Compositce. 

Color of Stamens. — In most species the color of these organs is 
seldom pronounced owing to their delicate structure. It varies 
from greenish-yellow to yellow to white, through pink, pinkish-red, 
red, purple, purple-blue to blue. It is yellow, for instance, in Sassa- 
fras, Cucumber and Golden Club; greenish-yellow, yellow to red in 
Maples; yellow-pink to pink and pinkish-red in some Mallows; in 
Azalea amena the filaments are crimson-purple and the anthers, pur- 
ple-blue; in the genus Scilla both filaments and anthers are blue. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Filament. — The filament 
may be cylindric as in the Rose, awl-shaped as in Tulip, flat and with 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


149 


a dilated base as in the Harebell, three-toothed as in Garlic, appen- 
diculate, when it bears an appendage as in Chcetostoma, Alyssum, etc. 
The filament is covered with a protective epidermis containing 
stomata. Beneath this is a soft, loose cellular tissue, the mesophyll, 
and in the center a small vascular bundle, the pathway of food from 
the floral axis to the anther. In some cases the single bundle may 
split into two or three bundle parts. 

Gross Structure and Histology of the Anther. — Each staminal leaf 
(microsporophyll) bears a special development or appendage as a 
rule on its extremity which is the anther or microsorus. This consists, 
fundamentally, of a median prolongation of the filament equal to the 
connective or placenta. This develops on either side a quantity of 
indusial tissue that grows out to form a covering substance that 
protects and carries two microsporangia on either side. An anther 
therefore consists of a median connective or placenta, producing on 
either side two anther lobes or indusial expansions. Each anther lobe 
encloses two pollen sacs or microsporangia which, in some cases, 
remain distinct up to the dehiscence (splitting open) of the anther. 
Thus in Butomus , the anthers show four pollen chambers up to the 
time of dehiscence. Again in various species of Lauracece, the 
anthers remain four lobed and dehisce by four recurved lids. But in 
the great majority of Angiosperms each pair of pollen sacs fuse before 
dehiscence, owing to the breaking down of the partition between 
them, and so, at that time, show two-celled anthers. Still more 
rarely the anthers may be two-celled in their young state and by the 
breaking down of the partition become one-celled, e.g., Malvaceae. 

Externally the mature anther is bounded by an exothecium or epi- 
dermis, often swollen, where lines of dehiscence occur, which may 
develop stomata, also hairs. Within it is a combined layer or set of 
one to often two or three, sometimes five or six cell layers (Agave, etc.) 
of indusial and sporangial cells, the endothecmm. The outermost one 
to three layers of this become spirally, annularly or stellately thickened 
to form the elastic tissue of the anther, which, by pressure against the 
delicate epidermis or exothecium, causes ultimate rupture of the 
anther wall. Within the innermost endothecial layer, bounding each 
sporangium, is the tapetum, a single-celled layer. This, near the time 
of dehiscence, undergoes breaking down or absorption by developing 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


150 

pollen or microspore cells. Filling the cavities of the four sporangia 
are the mature pollen grains. The connective shows in or near its 
center a vascular bundle with xylem uppermost and phloem down- 
ward, surrounded by thin- walled cellular tissue, from which the indu- 
sial and sporangial substance has matured by extension. 

Anther Dehiscence. — This is the breaking open of the anther to 
discharge the pollen. 

When fully ripe the dividing partition between each pair of spor- 
angia usually becomes thinned, flattened and ultimately breaks down, 


Fig. 66. — Cross-section of a mature lily anther. The pairs of pollen chambers 
unite to form two pollen sacs, filled with pollen grains; s, modified epidermal cells 
at line of splitting. ( From a Text-book of Botany by Coulter, Barnes, and Cowles. 
Copyright by the American Book Company, Publishers.) 

while the elastic and resistant endothecium, steadily pushing against 
the more delicate and now shrinking exothecium causes rupture 
where endothecium is absent, namely along opposite lines of the 
anther wall. Thus arises a line of anther dehiscence called longi- 
tudinal anther dehiscence on either side of the anther sacs. In the 
division Solanece of the family Solanaceee which includes Belladonna, 
in some of the Ericacece as Rhododendron and Azalea, etc., the 
anthers dehisce by small apical pores from which the pollen is shed. 
This kind of dehiscence is called apical porous dehiscence. Again, 
in Lauracece and Berberidacece , the anthers dehisce by recurved valves. 
This is called valvular dehiscence. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


Moreover, in Malvacece the originally longitudinal anther is divided 
internally by a partition. It gradually swings on the filament so 
that eventually the anther is transverse and the partition becomes 
absorbed, thus becoming a one-celled anther with transverse dehis- 
cence in its mature state. 

Development of the Anther. — Each stamen originates as a knob- 
like swelling from the receptacle between the petals and carpels. This 
swelling represents mainly future soral (anther) tissue. The fila- 
ment develops later. When such a young sorus or anther is cut 
across and examined microscopically, it shows a mass of nearly simi- 
lar cellular tissue in which the first observable changes are the 
following: 

The surface dermatogen cells become somewhat flattened and regu- 
lar to form the future epidermis or exothecium of the anther. 
About the same time some cells, by more rapid division in the middle 
of the anther substance, give rise to the elements of the vascular 
bundle in the connective. Then, along four longitudinal tracts, rows 
of cells remain undivided or only divide slowly as they increase in size 
and around them cells divide and redivide to form the future endo- 
thecial and covering tissue to the four sporangia. Next, the four 
sporangial tracts of undivided cells cut off from their outer surfaces 
a layer of enveloping cells, the tapetum. This consists of richly proto- 
plasmic cells that form a covering to the spore mother-cells within. 
Each spore mother-cell undergoes division and redivision into four 
spore daughter-cells at the same time that reduction in the chroma- 
tin substance takes place in these cells. Thus originate tetrads 
(groups of four) of spore daughter-cells inside spore mother-cell wall. 
These continue to enlarge, press against the mother-cell wall which 
becomes converted into mucilage and each of the tetrad cells becomes 
in time a mature microspore or pollen grain. 

During this time the entire anther is growing in size, the cells of 
the endothecium in one or more layers becomes thickened by lignin 
deposits to form a mechanical endothecium; the tapetum gradually 
breaks down and appears only at length as an irregular layer around 
the maturing pollen cells. When the anther is finally ripe the parti- 
tion between each pair of microsporangia becomes narrowed, flat- 
tened and ruptured and thus numerous microspores or pollen grains 


152 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


fill two cavities, one on either side of the connective. The micro- 
spores or pollen grains at first show only a thin clear cellulose layer, 
but from this, by a differentiation of the exterior film, the exospore 
layer becomes cut off. This becomes cuticular. The cellulose inner 
layer ( endospore ), remains unaltered. In the development of the 
exospore, one to several deficiencies are usually left in it through 
which the endospore may protrude later as the rudiment of the pol- 
len tube. 

Attachment of Anther. — The attachment of the anther to the fila- 
ment may be in one of several ways, as follows: 

Innate, attached at its base to the apex of the filament. 

Adnate, adherent throughout its length. 

Versatile, when the anther is attached near its center to the top 
of the filament, so that it swings freely. The adnate and versatile 
are introrse when they face inward, extrorse when they face 
outward. 

Pollen. — The pollen grains or microspores vary in form for differ- 
ent species and varieties and while they are averagely constant for 
these, nevertheless many exceptions have been recorded. The fol- 
lowing are some of the commoner forms: 

Four Spore Daughter -cells, hanging together as in the Cat Tail 
( Typha ) forming a pollen grain. 

Elongated, simple pollen grains as in Zostera. 

Dumb-bell-shaped, as the pollen of the Pines. 

Triangular , as in the ( Enotheras . 

Echinate, as in the Malvaceae. 

Spherical, as in Geranium, Cinnamon and Sassafras. 

Lens-shaped, as in the Lily. 

Spinose, as in the Composite. 

Barrel-shaped, as in Polygala. 

Under the microscope the immature pollen grain generally consists 
of two membranes, an outer firmer one called the exospore , which 
may be variously marked and which possesses deficiencies in the 
form of “pores ”or “ clefts,” andan inner delicate cellulose membrane 
called the endospore, which surrounds a protoplasmic interior in 
which are imbedded a nucleus, oil droplets and frequently starch 
or protein. 


Pig. 67. — Various forms of pollen grains. Pollen from Typha latifolia (A), 
Zea mays ( B ), Ambrosia elatior (C), Lilium philadelphicum ( D ), Pinus (E), 
Ranunculus bulbosus ( F ), Car pinus caroliniana (G), Althcea rosea (H), Oenothera 
biennis, (/). All highly magnified. Drawing by Hogstad. 


I 54 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Pollinia. — These are agglutinated pollen masses which are com- 
mon to the Orchidacece and Asclepiadacece. 

The pollen of many plants, notably certain species of Composite, 
Graminece and Rosacea, has been shown to be responsible for “Hay 
Fever.” At the present time serums, extracts* and vaccines are 
manufactured from pollen to be used in the treatment of this disease. 

The Gynoecium or Pistil System.- — This is the female system of 
organs of flowering plants. It may consist of one or more modified 
leaves called carpels. Each carpel or megasporophyll is a female 
organ of reproduction. In the Spruce, Pine, etc., it consists of an 
open leaf or scale which bears but does not enclose the ovules. In 
angiosperms it forms a closed sac which envelops and protects the 
ovules, and when complete is composed of three parts, the ovary or 
hollow portion at the base enclosing the ovules or rudimentary seeds, 
the stigma, or apical portion which receives the pollen grains, and 
the style, or connective which unites these two. The last is non- 
essential and when wanting the stigma is called sessile. The carpel 
clearly shows its relations to the leaf, though greatly changed in 
form. The lower portion of a leaf, when folded lengthwise with the 
margins incurved, represents the ovary; the infolded surface upon 
which the ovules are borne is the placenta, a prolongation of the 
tip of the leaf, the stigma, and the narrow intermediate portion, the 
style. A leaf thus transformed into an ovule-bearing organ is called 
a carpel. The carpels of the Columbine and Pea are made up of 
single carpels. In the latter the young peas occupy a double row 
along one of the sutures (seams) of the pod. This portion corre- 
sponds to the infolded edge of the leaf, and the pod splits open along 
this line, called the ventral suture. 

Dehiscence, or the natural opening of the carpel to let free the 
contained seeds, takes place also along the line which corresponds 
to the mid-rib of the leaf, the dorsal suture. 

The gynoecium or Pistil may consist of a number of separate 
carpels, as in the buttercup or Nymphaea flowers, when it is said to 
be apocarpous, or the carpels composing it may be united together 
to form a single structure, as in the flowers of Belladonna and Orange, 
when it is called syncarpous. 

If the pistil is composed of one carpel, it is called monocar pellary; 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


155 

if two carpels enter into its formation, it is said to be dicarpellary; 
if three, tricar pellary; if many, poly car pellary. 

Compound Pistils are composed of carpels which have united to 
form them, and therefore their ovaries will usually have just as 
many cells (locules) as carpels. When each simple ovary has its 
placenta, or seed-bearing tissue, at the inner angle the resulting 
compound ovary has as many axile or central placentae as there are 
carpels, but all more or less consolidated into one. The partitions 
are called dissepiments and form part of the walls of the ovary. If, 
however, the carpels are joined by their edges, like the petals of a 
gamopetalous corolla, there will be but one cell, and the placenta 
will be parietal, or on the wall of the compound ovary. 

The ovules or megasori are transformed buds, destined to become 
seeds in the mature fruit. Their number varies from one to hun- 
dreds. In position, they are erect, growing upward from the base 
of the ovary, as in the Compositse; ascending, turning upward from 
the side of the ovary or cell; pendulous, like the last except that 
they turn downward; horizontal, when directed straight outward; 
suspended, hanging perpendicularly from the top of the ovary. 

In Gymnosperms the ovules are naked; in Angiosperms they are 
enclosed in a seed vessel. 

A complete angiospermous seed ovule which has not undergone 
maturation consists of a nucellus or body; two coats, the outer and 
inner integuments ; and a funiculus, or stalk. Within the nucellus 
is found the embryo sac or megaspore containing protoplasm and a 
nucleus. 

The coats do not completely envelop the nucellus, but an opening 
at the apex, called the foramen or micropyle admits the pollen tube. 
The vascular plexus near the point where the coats are attached to 
each other and to the nucellus is called the chalaza. The hilum 
marks the point where the funiculus is joined to the ovule, and if 
attached to the ovule through a part of its length, the adherent 
portion is called the raphe. The shape of the ovule may be ortho- 
tropous, or straight; campylotropous, bent or curved; amphitropous, 
partly inverted; and anatropous, inverted. The last two forms are 
most common. A campylotropous ovule is one whose body is bent 
so that the hilum and micropyle are approximated. 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


156 

The Placenta . — The placenta is the nutritive tissue connecting 
the ovules with the wall of the ovary. The various types of pla- 
centa arrangement (placentation) are grouped according to their 
relative complexity as follows: (1) Basilar, (2) Sutural, (3) Parietal, 
(4) Central, (5) Free Central. 

Basilar placentation is well illustrated in the Polygonacece (Smart 
Weed, Rhubarb, etc.) in Piper and Juglans. Here, at the apex of the 
axis and in the center of the ovarian base, arises a single ovule from 
a small area of placental tissue. 

Sutural placentation is seen in the Leguminosce (Pea, Bean, etc.). 
Here each carpel has prolonged along its fused edges two cord-like 
placental twigs, from which start the funiculi or ovule stalks. 

Parietal placentation is seen in Gloxinia , Gesneria, Papaver, etc. 
Here we find two or more carpels joined and placental tissue running 
up along edges of the fused carpels bearing the ovules. 

Central or axile placentation is seen in Campanulacece (Lobelia), 
where the two, three, or more carpels have folded inward until they 
meet in the center and in the process have carried the originally 
parietal placenta with them. This then may form a central swelling 
bearing the ovules over the surface. 

Free Central placentation occurs perfectly in the Primulacece, 
Plantaginacece and a few other families. In this the carpels simply 
cover over or roof in a central placental pillar around which the 
ovules are scattered. 

Style. The style is the portion of the carpel which connects the 
stigma with the ovary. It is usually thread-like but may also be con- 
siderably thickened. It frequently divides into branches in its upper 
part. These are called style arms. As many style arms as carpels 
may be present. In the one-carpelled pistil of some Leguminosce , the 
usually bent-up style is the tapered prolongation of a single flower. 
Again, in the apocarpous carpels of many flowers of the Ranuncul- 
acece, each carpel bears a short to long stylar prolongation. When 
the carpels, however, are syncarpous the common styles tend to 
become more or less fused but usually show lobes, clefts or style 
arms at their extremities that indicate the number of carpels in 
each case which form the gynoecium. 

In some plants remarkable variations from the typical stylar 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


157 


development may occur. Thus, in Viola, the end of the style is a 
swollen knob on the under surface of which is a concave stigma with 
a flap or peg. In the genus Canna the style is an elongate blade-like 
flattened body with a sub-terminal stigma. In forms of the Cam- 
panulacecE the style is closely covered with so-called collecting hairs. 
On these the anthers deposit their pollen at an early period before 
the flowers have opened. Later, when the flowers open, insects 
remove the pollen after which the collecting hairs wither. The stig- 
mas then curl apart to expose their viscid stigmatic hairs. In this 
instance there are two distinct and at separate times functioning hairs 
on the stylar prolongation, viz.: (a) collecting stylar hairs, functioning 
for pollen collection and distribution; and ( b ) stigmatic hairs for pol- 
len reception from another flower. In Vinca the style swells near its 
extremity into a broad circular stigma and then is prolonged into a 
short column bearing a tuft of hairs that prevents the entrance of 
insect thieves into the flower. In the genus Iris the common style 
breaks up at the insertion of the perianth into three wide petaloid 
style arms. Each of these bifurcates at its extremity. On the 
lower or outer face of this is a transverse flap that bears the stigmatic 
papillae. In Physostigma the style enlarges at its extremity into a 
flap-like swelling which bears a narrow stigmatic surface. Finally 
in Sarracenia the single style of the five-carpelled pistil enlarges 
above into a huge umbrella-like portion with five radiating ribs. At 
the extremity of each bifid end of each rib is a minute peg-like stig- 
matic surface. 

The Stigma. — This is usually a viscid papillose surface of greater or 
less expanse functioning for pollen reception. In wind-pollinated 
flowers such as the grasses, the stigmas are the numerous feathery 
hairs which cover the ends of the styles and intended to catch flying 
pollen grains. In animal-pollinated flowers, the stigmas are usually 
small restricted knobs, lines or depressions. The stigmatic papillae 
vary in size in different plants and even may vary on different 
individuals of the same species. Thus in the long styles of Primula, 
the stigmatic papillae are elongated columnar hair-like structures, 
whereas in the short styles of short-styled flowers the papillae are 
small knob-like cellular swellings. 


158 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


POLLINATION 

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma and 
the consequent germination thereon. It is a necessary step to 
fertilization. 

When the pollen is transferred to the stigma of its own flower the 
process is called Close or Self-pollination; if to a stigma of another 
flower, Cross-pollination. If fertilization follows, these processes are 
termed respectively, Close or Self-fertilization and Cross-fertilization. 
Close-fertilization means in time ruination to the race and happily is 
prevented in many cases by (a) the stamens and pistils standing in 
extraordinary relation to each other, ( b ) by the anthers and pistils 
maturing at different times, (c) by the pollen in many cases germin- 
ating better on the stigma of another flower than its own. 

The agents which are responsible for cross-pollination are the wind, 
insects, water currents, small animals, and man. 

Wind- pollinated flowering plants are called Anemophilous; their 
pollen is dry and powdery, flowers inconspicuous and inodorous, as 
in the Pines, Wheat, Walnut, Hop, etc. 

Insect- pollinated plants are called Entomo philous . These, being 
dependent upon the visits of insects for fertilization, possess bril- 
liantly colored corollas, have fragrant odors, and secrete nectar, a 
sweet liquid very attractive to insects which are adapted to this work 
through the possession of a pollen-carrying apparatus. Example: 
Orchids. 

Plants pollinated through the agency of water currents are known as 
Hydrophilous. To this class belong such plants as live under water 
and which produce flowers at or near the surface of the same. Exam- 
ple: Sparganium. 

Animal-pollinated plants are called Zoo philous. Some plants like 
the Nasturtium and Honeysuckle are pollinated by humming birds. 

Before the pollen grain has been deposited upon the stigma and 
during its germination thereon, a series of events affecting both the 
pollen grain and the embryo sac occur which result in the ultimate 
formation of the male and female gametophytes. 

Maturation of the Pollen Grain and Formation of the Male 
Gametophyte. — The substance of the microspore (pollen grain) 
divides into two cells, the mother and tube cells of the future male 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


159 


gametophyte. The nucleus of the mother-cell divides to form two 
sperm nuclei. Within the tube cell is found a tube nucleus embedded 
in protoplasm. Upon germinating the partition disappears and the 
thin endospore, carrying within it the protoplasm in which are 
embedded the tube nucleus and twos perm nuclei, penetrates through 
a deficiency of the exospore. The contents of the pollen grain at this 
stage is called the male gametophyte. 

Maturation of the Embryo Sac and Formation of the Female 
Gametophyte. — The nucleus of the megaspore or embryo sac under- 
goes division until eight daughter-nuclei are produced which are 
separated into the following groups: 

(а) Three of these nuclei occupy a position at the apex, the lower 
nucleus of the group being the egg or ovum, the other two nuclei 
being the synergids or assisting nuclei. 

(б) At the opposite end of the sac are three nuclei known as the 
antipodals which apparently have no special function. 

(c) The two remaining nuclei ( polar nuclei) form a group lying 
near the center of the embryo sac which unite to form a single 
endosperm nucleus from which, after fertilization, the endosperm or 
nourishing material is derived. This stage of the embryo sac con- 
stitutes the female gametophyte. 

Fertilization in Angiosperms. — After the pollen grain reaches the 
stigma, the viscid moisture of the stigma excites the outgrowth of the 
male gametophyte which bursts through the coats of the pollen grain 
forming a pollen tube. The pollen tube, carrying within its walls 
two sperm nuclei and one tube nucleus, penetrates through the loose 
cells of the style until it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, then 
piercing the nucellus, it enters the embryo sac. The tip of the tube 
breaks and one of the sperm nuclei unites with the egg to form the 
oospore. The oospore develops at once into an embryo or plantlet, 
which lies passive until the seed undergoes germination. The other 
sperm nucleus unites with the previously fused polar nuclei to form 
the endosperm nucleus which soon undergoes rapid division into a 
large number of nuclei that become scattered about through the pro- 
toplasm of the embryo sac. These accumulate protoplasm about 
them, cells walls are laid down, endosperm resulting. 


i6o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


THE FRUIT 

The fruit consists of the matured pistil (carpel or carpels) and 
contents, or ovarian portion thereof, but may include other organs 
of the flower which frequently are adnate to and ripen with it. 
Thus in the Apples, Pears and Quinces, the receptacle becomes thick 
and succulent, surrounds the carpels during the ripening process and 
forms the edible portion of these fruits. In Dandelion, Arnica, and 
many other members of the Composite, the modified calyx or pappus 
adheres to the ovary during its maturation into the fruit and renders 
the fruit buoyant. In Gaultheria the calyx becomes fleshy, sur- 
rounds the ovary, reddens, and forms the edible part of the fruit. In 
Physalis the calyx enlarges considerably and encloses the ovary in an 
inflated colored bladder. Involucres frequently persist around and 
mature with the fruits. These may be membranous as in Anthemis, 
Matricaria and other Composites, leathery and prickly as in the Chest- 
nuts, scaly woody cups (cupules) as in the Oaks, or foliaceous cups as 
in the Filberts. Occasionally, as in the Fig, Osage Orange, Mul- 
berry, etc., the fruit may consist of the ripened flower cluster or 
inflorescence. 


Fruit Structure 

The Pericarp, or seed vessel, is the ripened wall of the ovary, and in 
general the structure of the fruit wall resembles that of the ovary, but 
undergoes numerous modifications in the course of development. 

The number of cells of the ovary may increase or decrease, the 
external surface may change fron soft and hairy in the flower to hard, 
and become covered with sharp, stiff prickles, as in the Datura 
Stramonium or Jamestown weed. Transformations in consistence 
may take place and the texture of the wall of the ovary may become 
hard and bony as in the Filbert, leathery, as the rind of the Orange, 
or assume the forms seen in the Gourd, Peach, Grape, etc. 

Frequently the pericarp consists for the most part of other ele- 
ments than the ripened ovarian wall and is then termed a pseudocarp 
or anthocarp. The pericarp consists of three layers of different tex- 
ture, viz.: epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The epicarp is the 
outer layer. The mesocarp the middle, and the endocarp the inner 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


161 

layer. When the mesocarp is fleshy, as in the Peach, it is called the 
sarcocarp. 

When the endocarp within the sarcocarp is hard, forming a shell or 
stone, this is termed a putamen. 

Sutures.- — The ventral suture is a line formed by the coherent 
edges of a carpellary leaf. The dorsal suture is the mid-rib of the 
carpel. Parietal sutures are lines or furrows frequently visible on the 
walls of fruits, formed by the ripening of a compound ovary. They 
occur between its dorsal sutures and indicate the places of union 
between adjacent septa or of two parietal placentas. 

Valves. — These are the parts into which the mature fruit separates 
to permit the escape of the seeds. Depending upon the number of 
these the fruit is said to be univalved, bivalved, trivalved, etc. 

Dehiscence.- This is the opening of the pericarp to allow the 
seeds to escape. 

Fruits are either Dehiscent or Indehiscent according as they open to 
discharge their seeds spontaneously when ripe (dehiscent), or decay, 
thus freeing the seeds, or retain their seeds, the embryo piercing 
the pericarp in germination {indehiscent) . Dehiscent fruits open reg- 
ularly, or normally, when the pericarp splits vertically through the 
whole or a part of its length, along sutures or lines of coalescence of 
contiguous carpels. Legumes usually dehisce by both sutures. 
Irregular or abnormal dehiscence has no reference to normal sutures, 
as where it is transverse or circumscissile, extending around the cap- 
sule either entirely or forming a hinged lid, as in Hyoscyamus, or 
detached. 

Dehiscence is called porous or apical when the seeds escape through 
pores at the apex, as in the Poppy; valvular, when valve-like orifices 
form in the wall of the capsule. Valvular dehiscence is septicidal, 
when the constituent carpels of a pericarp become disjoined, and 
then open along their ventral suture. Example: Colchicum; loculi- 
cidal, dehiscence into loculi, or cells, in which each component carpel 
splits down its dorsal suture, and the dissepiments remain intact. 
Example: Cardamon; septifragal dehiscence , a breaking away of the 
valves from the septa or partitions. Example: Orchids. 

Classification of Fruits (according to structure).- — Simple fruits 
result from the ripening of a single pistil in a flower. 

11 


162 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Aggregate fruits are the product of all the carpel ripenings in one 
flower, the cluster of carpels being crowded on the ripened receptacle 
forming one mass, as in the Raspberry, Blackberry, and Strawberry. 

Multiple fruits are those which are the product of the ripening 
of a flower cluster instead of a single flower. 

Simple and Compound fruits are either Dry or Fleshy. The first 
may be divided into Dehiscent, those which split open when ripe; 
and Indehiscent, those which do not. 

Simple Fruits : 

[ I. Capsular (dehiscing). 

Dry j II. Schizocarpic (splitting). 

I III. Achenial (indehiscent). 
j IV. Baccate (berries), 
uccu ent ^ y p> rU p aceous (stone fruits). 

The capsular fruits include all of those, whether formed of one 
or more carpels, which burst open to let seeds escape. 

Schizocarpic or splitting fruits are those in which each carpel or 
each half carpel (in Labiatse) splits asunder from its neighbor and 
then falls to the ground. The split portion is one-seeded. 

Achenial fruits are dry, one-celled, one-seeded and indehiscent 
at the time of final ripening. 

Baccate fruits are such in which the endocarp always and the 
mesocarp usually becomes succulent and so the seeds lie in the pulp 
formed by the endocarp or endocarp and mesocarp combined. 

Drupaceous fruits are those in which the endocarp is always 
fibrous or stony in consistence, while the mesocarp is more or less 
succulent. The endocarp may become cuticularized as in the 
Apples. The mesocarp may form stone cells lying in the midst of 
soft parenchyme cells as in Pears; it may become hardened and 
thickened by lignin deposits to form fibers as in the Cocoanut, or 
it may become swollen and soft-succulent as in Peaches, Cherries, 
etc. 

I. Capsular Fruits. — These may be simple, when composed of one 
carpel as the follicle and legume, or compound, when composed of 
two or more carpels as the capsule, pyxis, regma, siliqua or silicule. 

The Follicle or pod is a dry, simple capsular fruit formed of a 


/ 

PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 1 63 

single carpel which dehisces by one suture. This is usually the 
ventral suture as in Aconite, Staphisagria, Larkspur and some other 
Ranunculaceee , but may be the dorsal suture as in Magnolia. 

A Legume is a dry simple capsular fruit formed of a single carpel 
and dehiscent by both ventral and dorsal sutures. Examples: Peas, 
Beans, etc. The legume is typical of most Leguminosce. 

A Capsule is a fruit formed of two or more carpels which dehisce 
longitudinally or by apical teeth or valves. Examples: Cardamon, 
Poppy, Iris, etc. 

A Pyxis or Pyxidium is a capsular fruit formed of two or more 
carpels that dehisce transversely. Examples: Hyoscyamus, Portu- 
laca. The upper portion forms a lid which fits upon the lower pot- 
like portion. 


Fig. 68. — Legume of the edible pea ( Pisum sativum), a, anther-, c, calyx; st, 

stigma. (Gager.) 

A Regma is a capsular fruit of two or more carpels that first splits 
into separate parts and then each of these dehisces. This type of 
fruit is typical of II lira crepitans (Sandbox), Pelargonium and 
Geranium. 

A Siliqua is a long slender one or two-celled capsule, often with a 
spurious membranous septum (when two-celled) and two persistent 
parietal placentae, the valves opening from below upward. Ex- 
amples: Chelidonium and Wallflower. 

A Silicule is a short siliqua in which the length is never much 
greater than the breadth. Example: Cochlearia. 

II. Schizocarpic Fruits. — A Carcerulus or Nutlet is the typical 
fruit of the Labiatae but is also seen in the Borraginaceae. The ovary 


164 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


that has become four-celled at the time of flowering matures into 
four little pieces which split asunder lengthwise. Each split part 
is composed of one-half of a ripened carpel. 

A Cremocarp is the characteristic splitting fruit of the Umbel- 
liferse family. It consists of two inferior akenes or mericarps sepa- 
rated from each other by a forked stalk called a carpophore. These 
mericarps usually cling to the forks of the carpophore for a time 
after the cremocarp splits, but sooner or later fall. 

A Samara is a winged splitting fruit. It may be one-carpelled 
as in the Elm, Ash, Tulip Poplar and Wafer Ash or two-carpelled 
as in the Maples. 

A Lomentum or Loment is a splitting fruit that splits transversely 
into one-seeded portions. Seen in Cruciferce, in Entada scandens, 
Cathartocarpus Fistula, Desmodium, etc. of Leguminosoe. 

III. Achenial Fruits (all indehiscent). — The Akene is a dry one- 
chambered, indehiscent fruit, in which the pericarp is firm and may 
or may not be united with the seed, the style remaining in many 
cases as an agent of dissemination. The latter may be long and 
feathery as in Clematis or be hooked. Examples of akenes: Fruits 
of the Compositce, Anemone, etc. The Hip of the Roses consists of 
a number of akenes in a ripened concave receptacle. 

The Utricle is like the akene, except that the pericarp is loose and 
bladder-like. Example: Chenopodium. 

A Caryopsis or Grain is similar to an akene but differs from it by 
the pericarp being always fused with the seed coat. This fruit is 
more likely than any other to be mistaken for a seed. Examples: 
Wheat, Corn, Barley, Oats and other members of the Graminacece. 

A Nut or Gians is a one-celled, one-seeded fruit with a leathery 
or stony pericarp. Examples: Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts, Alders 
and Palms. 

IV. Baccate Fruits (Succulent fruits in which the endocarp is 
always succulent and the mesocarp sometimes).- — The Berry is a 
small fleshy fruit with a thin membranous epicarp and a succulent 
interior in which the seeds are imbedded. Examples: Capsicum, 
Tomato, Belladonna, Grape, Currant, etc. 

An Uva is a berry from a superior ovary. Examples: Bella- 
donna, Egg-plant, Tomato. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 165 


A Bacca is a berry from an inferior ovary. Examples: Goose- 
berry, Honeysuckle, Currant. 

The Pepo or Gourd Fruit is a baccate fruit of large size which has 
developed from an inferior ovary. It is fleshy internally and has a 
tough or very hard rind. Examples: Fruits of the Cucurbitacece 
and the Banana. 

The Hesperidium is a large thick-skinned succulent fruit with 
seeds embedded in the pulp but from a superior ovary. Examples: 
Orange, Grape-fruit, Lemon, etc. In each of these there is to be 
noted a glandular leathery epicarp, a sub-leathery mesocarp and 
an endocarp in the form of separate carpels. From the endocarp 
hairs grow inward into the carpellary cavities and become filled with 
succulence. The seeds lie amid the hair cells. 

V. Drupaceous Fruits (Succulent fruits in which the mesocarp 
is more or less succulent, but the endocarp leathery or stony). — 
A Drupe is a one-celled, one-seeded drupaceous fruit such as the 
fruit of the Plum, Peach, Prune, Sabal, Rhus, Piper, Cherry, etc., 
whose endocarp or putamen is composed wholly of stone cells or 
stone cells and sclerenchyme fibers. 

The Pome is a fleshy drupaceous fruit, two or more celled with 
fibrous or stony endocarp, the chief bulk of which consists of the 
adherent torus. Quince, Apple and Pear are examples. The car- 
pels constitute the core, and the fleshy part is developed from the 
torus. 

Aggregate Fruits. — An Etaerio consists of a collection of little 
drupes on a torus of a single flower. Examples: Raspberry, Black- 
berry, etc. 

Multiple Fruits.- — The Syconium is a multiple fruit consisting of a 
succulent hollow torus enclosed within which are akene-like bodies, 
products of many flowers. Example: Fig. 

The Sorosis is represented by the Mulberry, Osage Orange, etc., 
the grains of which are not the ovaries of a single flower, as in the 
Blackberry, but belong to as many separate flowers. In the Pine- 
apple all the parts are blended into a fleshy, juicy, seedless mass, and 
the plant is propagated by cuttings. 

The Strobile or Cone is a scaly, multiple fruit consisting of a 
scale-bearing axis, each scale enclosing one or more seeds. The 


i66 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


name is applied to the fruit of the Hop, and also to the fruit of the 
Coniferce in which the naked seeds are borne on the upper surface 
of the woody scales. 

A Galbalus is a more or less globular multiple fruit formed of 
fleshy connate scales, as in Juniper. 

Histology of a Capsule, Vanilla. — The Vanilla fruit is a one-celled 
capsule formed by the union of three carpellary leaves and dehiscing 
by two unequal longitudinal valves. 

Microscopic Appearance of a Transverse Section. — Passing 
from periphery toward the center, the following structures present 
themselves: 

1. Epicarp, consisting of epidermis and hypodermis. The epidermis 
consists of a layer of thick-walled epidermal cells whose outer walls 
show the presence of a thin yellow cuticle. Stomata are present in 
this tissue. The epidermal cells contain protoplasm and brownish 
bodies. Some also contain small prisms of calcium oxalate and a 
few, vanillin crystals. The hypodermis is composed of one to several 
layers of collenchymatic cells with dark-colored contents. Its cells 
are somewhat larger than those of the epidermis and thicker-walled. 

2. Mesocarp, a broad region of somewhat loosely arranged large, 
thin-walled parenchyma cells becoming smaller in the inner zone of 
this region. Most of these cells contain brownish contents but some 
possess long raphides of calcium oxalate. If the section be mounted 
in phloroglucin solution (5 per cent.) and a drop of strong sulphuric 
acid is added, a carmine-red color will be observed showing the pres- 
ence of vanillin in this region. Several closed collateral bundles will 
be seen coursing through the mesocarp. 

3. Endocarp, an irregular line of inner epidermal cells which is 
differentiated into two regions, the interplacental region and the 
placental region. The interplacental (inner) epidermis shows its 
cells elongated into numerous thin-walled glandular hairs which con- 
tain an abundance of balsam; the placental region covers the six 
bifid placentae which extend into the cavity of the capsule. Its 
(inner) epidermis is composed of mucilaginous cells. 

4. Seeds. -These are minute blackish bodies attached to the pla- 
cental twigs of the placentae. Some of them may have been torn off 
in cutting the section. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


167 


Histology of a Typical Mericarp, Fceniculum. — This five-angled 
fruit, in transverse section, shows a concave commissural and convex 
dorsal surface. Passing from the surfaces toward the center we note: 

1. Epicarp , or outer covering tissue, composed of colorless epider- 
mal cells and small stomata. The epidermal cells in cross-section 
appear rectangular, while in surface view they are both polygonal and 
rectangular. 

2. Mesocarp, of several layers of thin-walled colorless isodia- 
metric cells, beneath which are two to several additional layers of 
thicker-walled cells with brownish walls. Through the angles or 


Fig. 69. — Photomicrograph of a transverse section of a mericarp of Foeni- 
culum vulgar e, showing epicarp (A), mesocarp (B), endocarp ( F ), vitta (C), endo- 
sperm of seed (D), carpophore (G) and fibro-vascular bundle in primary rib (£). 
(Highly magnified). 

rib portions of the mesocarp extend the fibro-vascular bundles. 
Between each fibro-vascular bundle and the tip of each rib will be 
found a zone of collenchyma cells. In the mesocarp between each 
two ribs on the dorsal side occurs a single vitta or oil tube which is 
lined with a layer of brownish polygonal cells. These vittas contain 
the official oil of fennel. Two vittae generally occur in the meso- 
carp of the commissural side although four are reported to have 
been found in this region of some fennel fruits. 

3. Endocarp , a narrow layer of cells, transversely elongated, except 
over the regions of bundles where they may be seen elongated in 
several directions. 


i68 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


4. Spermoderm or Seed Coat , consisting of a layer of somewhat 
broadened epidermal cells attached to the endocarp and several 
layers of collapsed cells which are only well defined in the region of 
the raphe. 

5. Endosperm, a central mass of more or less polygonal cells con- 
taining aleurone grains and oil globules. Each aleurone grain con- 
tains a rosette aggregate of calcium oxalate and one or two globoids. 

6. Embryo, embedded in the endosperm of the upper region of the 
seed. 

THE SEED 

A seed is a matured megasorus (ovule) borne by the sporophyte of 
a spermatophytic plant, enclosing a megaspore (embryo sac) within 
which a fertilized egg of the succeeding gametophyte generation has 
segmented to form a new sporophyte plant. The purpose of the 
seed is to insure the continuation and distribution of the species. 
Like the ovule, it consists of a nucellus or kernel enclosed by integu- 
ments, and the descriptive terms used are the same. The seed 
coats, corresponding to those of the ovule, are one or two in number. 
If but one seed coat is present it is termed the spermoderm. If two 
are present, the outer one is called the testa, and the inner one the 
tegmen. The testa, or outer seed shell, differs greatly in form and 
texture. If thick and hard, it is crustaceous; if smooth and glossy, 
it is polished; if roughened, it may be pitted, furrowed, hairy, reticu- 
late, etc. 

The testa may often present outgrowths or seed appendages whose 
functions are to make the seeds buoyant, whereby they may be dis- 
seminated by wind currents. Examples of these are seen in the Milk- 
weed, which has a tuft of hairs at one end of the seed called a Coma, 
and in the official Strophanthus, which has a long bristle-like appen- 
dage attached to one end of the seed and called an awn. The wart- 
like appendage at the hilum or micropyle, as in Castor Oil Seed, is 
called the Caruncle. 

The tegmen or inner coat surrounds the nucellus closely and is 
generally soft and delicate. 

A third integument, or accessory seed covering outside of the testa, 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 1 69 

is occasionally present and is called the Aril. Example: Euonymus 
(succulent). 

When such an integument arises from the dilatation of the micro- 
pyle of the seed, as in the Nutmeg, it is known as an Arillode. 

The Nucellus or Kernel consists of tissue containing albumen, when 
this substance is present, and the embryo. Albumen is the name 
given the nutritive matter stored in the seed. The funiculus or seed 
stalk is usually absent in the official seeds. The scar left by its 
separation is called the hilum. When the funiculus is continued 
along the outer seed coat, it is called the raphe. 

MODE OF FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALBUMEN 

If the egg-cell within the embryo sac segments and grows into the 
embryo and, stretching, fills up the cavity without food material 
laid down around it, it happens that the nutritive material lingers in 
the cells of the nucellus pressing around the embryo. This is called 
Peris per mic albumen. Seen in the Polygonaceoe. 

In by far the greater number of Angiosperms, the endosperm nu- 
cleus, after double fertilization, divides and redivides, giving rise to 
numerous nuclei imbedded in the protoplasm of the embryo sac, out- 
side of the developing embryo. Gathering protoplasm about them- 
selves and laying down cell walls they form the endosperm tissue 
outside of the embryo. Into this tissue food is passed constituting 
the Endospermic albumen. 

In the Marantaceoe, Piperacece, etc., nutritive material is passed 
into the nucellar cells causing them to swell up, while to one side a 
small patch of endosperm tissue accommodates a moderate amount 
of nourishing substance, thus resulting in the formation of abundant 
perisperm and a small reduced endosperm. 

Exalbuminous seeds are those in which the albumen is stored in the 
embryo during the growth of the seed. Such seeds show the fleshy 
embryo taking up all or nearly all the room within the seed coat. 
Examples: Physostigma, Amygdala, etc. 

Albuminous seeds are those in which the nourishment is not stored 
in the embryo until germination takes place. Such seeds show a 
larger nourishing tissue region and a smaller embryo region. Exam- 
ples: Nux Vomica, Myristica, Linum, etc. 


170 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Gross Structure of a Monocotyl Seed {With fruit wall attached), 
Indian Corn. — The ripened seed of Indian Corn is surrounded by a 
thin, tough pericarp which is firmly adherent to and inseparable from 
the Spermoderm or seed coat. Because of this fact, while in reality 
a fruit called a caryopsis or grain, this structure is sometimes erro- 
neously termed a seed. 

The mature grain of most varieties of Indian Corn is flattened and 
somewhat triangular in outline, the summit being broad and the 
base comparatively narrow. The summit is indented and often 
marked by a small point which represents a vestige of the style. 
The basal or “tip” region marks the part of the grain which was in- 
serted into the cob. Upon it may be found papery chaff, represent- 
ing parts of the pistillate spikelets. The groove noted on the 
broader surface indicates the position of the embryo. 

Histology of the Indian Corn Seed {With fruit wall attached). — If a 
longitudinal section be cut through the lesser diameter of a soaked 
grain, the following histologic characteristics will be observed: 

1. The Pericarp or ripened ovarian wall which, alike with all other 
grains, adheres firmly to the wall of the seed forming a portion of 
the skin of the grain. The pericarp comprises an outer epicarp of 
elongated cells with thin cuticle, a mesocarp of thicker walled cells 
without, becoming thinner within and a layer of tube cells. 

2. The Spermoderm or seed coat, a single layer of delicate elon- 
gated cells. 

3. The Peris perm, another layer directly underneath the Spermo- 
derm, difficult to distinguish without special treatment, and repre- 
senting the ripened nucellar tissue of the ovule. 

4. The Endosperm or nourishing tissue, consisting of: {a) The 
Aleurone Layer, for the most part a single row of cells, containing 
aleurone grains. Some of the cells may be seen to be divided by 
tangential partitions, {b) Starch Parenchyma, consisting of two 
regions: an outer horny zone composed of cells containing for the 
most part polygonal starch grains and oil droplets; and an inner 
mealy zone of cells with mostly rounded starch grains. 

5. The Embryo, consisting of a single shield-shaped cotyledon 
adjoining the endosperm, the plumule or rudimentary bud at the 
end of the caulicle or rudimentary stem and the radicle or rudimen- 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


I 7 I 

tary root, with its tip covered by a root cap. Continuous with the 
root cap is a root sheath or coleorhiza. The cotyledon or seed leaf 
consists of two parts: the scutellum which lies next to the endosperm, 
and is an organ of absorption ; and the sheathing portion which sur- 
rounds and protects the rest of the embryo. 

The embryo contains oil and proteids, but no starch. 

If a similar longitudinal section of a soaked grain be mounted in 
dilute iodine solution, the contents of the aleurone cells will be col- 
ored yellow indicating their proteid nature, while the starch grains 
will take on a blue to violet coloration. The endosperm will be 
observed taking up most of the room within the seed coat. The con- 
tents of its cells are not baled out to the embryo until after germina- 
tion begins. Indian Corn is therefore an albuminous seed. 

A MONOCOTYL SEEDLING 

Germination. — When any viable seed is planted in suitable soil, and 
furnished with oxygen and water and a certain degree of heat, ger- 
mination takes place. In the presence of moisture, etc., the seed 
swells, the ferments present within the cells of the endosperm then 
change the insoluble proteid, starch, and oil to soluble materials, 
which, in the case of Indian Corn, are absorbed in solution by the 
scutellum which bales this nourishment out to other parts of the 
growing embryo, there to be used in part in constructing new tissues, 
and in part to be consumed by oxidation or respiration. The process 
of respiration or breathing takes place when the plant takes in oxy- 
gen and gives off carbon dioxide. The oxygen oxidizes the tissues 
with an accompanying release of energy, which latter is necessary to 
life and growth. 

The combined pericarp and spermoderm bursts opposite the tip of 
the radicle, and the radicle, piercing through the cotyledonary sheath, 
protrudes. The cleft in the coat lengthens to the point opposite the 
tip of the plumule, which also protrudes after bursting through the 
cotyledonary sheath. The radicle, next, grows downward into the 
soil forming the primary root, and develops upon itself secondary or 
lateral roots, all of which give rise to root-hairs just above their root 
caps. Additional lateral roots emerge above the scutellar region 


172 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


which ere long attain the size of the first or primary root. The cau- 
licle, carrying upon its tip the plumule, elongates and forms the stem; 
the leaves of the plumule spread out and turn green to function as 
foliage leaves. The perforated cotyledonary sheath grows out sur- 
rounding both the root and the stem for a portion of their length. By 
this time all or nearly all of the nourishment stored in the endosperm 
has been absorbed and assimilated by the young seedling and the 
coat and scutellum, left behind, gradually decay and disappear. The 
root-hairs absorb nourishment from the soil, the green leaves build 
up carbohydrates, prop-roots make their appearance at the first 
node (joint) above ground, and the seedling grows larger. 

Gross Structure of a Dicotyl Seed, Phaseolus lunatus (Lima Bean). 
— The Lima Bean Seed shows a flattened-ovate to somewhat reni- 
form outline. Externally it exhibits a polished seed coat which is 
perforated on its basal side by a minute pore called the micropyle or 
foramen. Just below this pore will be noted the hilum or scar which 
represents the point of detachment from the funiculus or stalk which 
connected the seed during its growth with the wall of the fruit. 
Upon soaking the seed in water, it is possible to remove the seed coat 
or spermoderm. This done, the embryo will be exposed. The two 
fleshy cotyledons are first seen. Upon spreading these out, convex 
sides down, the rest of the embryo, consisting of a thin leafy structure 
surrounding a bud and called the plumule, the caulicle or rudimen- 
tary stem and in line with the latter, the radicle, or rudimentary 
root, will be seen. 

Histology of the Lima Bean Seed. — In transverse sections, the 
following microscopic structures will be evident: 

i. Spermoderm of three regions, viz.: Palisade cells, Column cells, 
and Spongy Parenchyma. The palisade cell layer is composed of 
vertically elongated thick-walled cells which are covered on their 
outer faces by a clear glistening cuticle. The cells are 60 to 8oyu long 
and 1 2 to 2o/x wide. The column cells, found forming a layer directly 
beneath the palisade zone, are hour-glass-shaped and 25 to 35^ long 
by 14 to 35 ju wide. 

The spongy parenchyma forms a zone of several layers of thin- 
walled parenchyma cells, the cells of the outer and inner layers being 
considerably smaller than the middle layers. 


PLANT ORGANS AND ORGANISMS 


17 3 


2. Embryo, the two cotyledons of which make up the greatest bulk. 
These are composed of an epidermis covering over a region of meso- 
phyll. The mesophyll is constituted of moderately thick- walled 
cells which contain ellipsoidal and kidney-shaped starch grains up 
to 65/u in length. A conspicuous branching cleft will be seen in the 
larger grains. 

In the Lima Bean, the nourishment is stored in the embryo during 
the growth of the seed. It is, therefore, exalbuminous . 


CHAPTER VIII 


TAXONOMY 

DIVISION I.— THALLOPHYTA 

Plants, the greater number of which, consist of a thallus, a body 
undifferentiated into root, stem or leaf. The group nearest to the 
beginning of the plant kingdom presenting forms showing rudi- 
mentary structures which are modified through division of labor, dif- 
ferentiation, etc., in higher groups. 

SUBDIVISION I.— PROTOPHYTA (SCHIZOPHYTA) 

A large assemblage of “fission plants” comprising the bacteria 
and blue-green algte. In the simplest types no nucleus is present, 
but as we arise in scale through the bacteria and blue-green algae, 
there is to be observed an open granular, gradually growing to a 
crescentic, chromatin mass that may be called a nucleus. A common 
method of asexual reproduction is possessed by these plants whereby 
the cell cleaves or splits into two parts, each of which then becomes 
a separate and independent organism. 

I. SCHIZOMYCETES — BACTERIA 

Bacteria are minute, unicellular, colorless, rarely weakly red or 
green colored, non-nucleate vegetable organisms destitute of chloro- 
phyll. They serve as agents of decay and fermentation and are 
frequently employed in industrial processes. According to the vari- 
ous phenomena they produce, they may be classified as follows: (a) 
Zymogens producing fermentation; ( b ) Aerogens producing gas; (c) . 
Photogens producing light; (d) Chromogens producing color; ( e ) 
Saprogens, producing putrefaction; (/) Pathogens, producing disease. 

Physical Appearance of Bacterial Colonies and Individual Forms. 
Because of their minute size — a space the size of a pinhead may 

174 


TAXONOMY 


175 


hold eight billion of them — the student commences his study of 
bacterial growths in colonies or cultures, each kind possessing 
characteristics by which they may be distinguished and differ- 
entiated. 

Tihe individuals in the colony, depending upon the kind of bac- 
teria under examination, may be globular, rod-shaped, or spiral. 
Bacteria are classed according to form into the following families 
and genera. 


Fig. 70. — Types of micrococci. ( After Williams .) 


Family I. — Coccaceae. — Cells in their free condition globular, be- 
coming but slightly elongated before division. Cell-division in one, 
two or three directions of space. 

A. Cells without Flagella. 

1. Division only in one direction of space forming an aggregation 
resembling a chain of beads — Streptococcus. 

2. Division in two directions of space forming an aggregation 
resembling a cluster of grapes — Staphylococcus. 

3. Division in three directions of space forming a package-shaped 
or cubical aggregation — Sarcina. 

B. Cells with Flagella. 

1. Division in two directions of space — Planococcus. 

2. Division in three directions of space — Planosarcina. 


Fig. 71. — Types of bacilli. ( After Williams.) 


Family II.— Bacteriaceae. — Cells longer than broad, generally two 
to six times, straight or only with an angular bend, never curved or 


176 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


spiral, division only at right angles to axis or rod; with or without 
flagella and endospores. 

1. Flagella and endospores absent — Bacterium. 

2. Flagella and endospores present — Bacillus. 

Family III. — Spirillaceae. — Cells curved or spirally bent, generally 
motile through polar flagella. 

1. Cells stiff, not flexile. 

(a) Cells without flagella — Spirosoma. 

( b ) Cells with one, very rarely with two polar flagella — Micro- 
spira. 

( c ) Cells with a bundle of polar flagella — Spirillum. 

2. Cells flexile, spiral very close — Spirochaeta. 


Fig. 72. — Types of spirilla. ( After Williams .) 


Family IV. — Mycobacteriaceae.- — Cells short or long cylindrical 
or clavate-cuneate in form, without a sheath surrounding the 
chains of individuals, without endospores, with true dichotomous 
branching. 

A. In cultures possessing the characters of true bacteria. Growth 
on solid media smooth, flat, spreading. Rods with swollen ends, 
or cuneate or clavate forms — Corynebacterium. 

B. Cultures on solid media raised, folded or warty. Generally 
short slender rods, rarely short branched. Take the tubercle stain— 
Mycobacterium. 

Family V. — Chlamydobacteriacese. — Thread-like, composed of 
individual cells, surrounded by a sheath. Simple or with true 
branching. Ordinary vegetative growth by division in only one 
direction of space, i.e., at right angles to the longer axis. 

A. Cell contents without sulphur granules. 

1. Filaments unbranched. 

(1 a ) Cell-division only in one direction of space. 


TAXONOMY 


177 


( b ) Cell-division in gonidial formation in three directions 
of space — Streptothrix. 

*Marine forms with cells surrounded by a very delicate 
hardly discernible sheath — Phragmidiothrix. 
**Fresh-water forms with easily discernible sheath — - 
Crenothrix. 

2. Filaments branched. 

B. Cell contents with sulphur granules — Thiothrix. 

Family VI. — ^Beggiatoaceae. — Thread-like, without a capsule, but 
with an undulating membrane. Cell contents show sulphur granules. 

A. Threads apparently not septated, septa only faintly visible 
with iodine staining. Colorless or faintly rose-colored — Beggiatoa. 

Sporulation. — A large number of bacteria possess the power of 
developing into a resting stage by a process known as sporulation 
or spore formation. Sporulation is regarded as a method of resisting 
unfavorable environment. This is illustrated by the anthrax 
bacilli which are readily killed in twenty minutes by a 10 per cent, 
solution of carbolic acid, and able, when in the spore condition, to 
resist the same disinfectant for a long period in a concentration of 
50 per cent. And, while the vegetative forms show little more 
resistance against moist heat than the vegetative form of other 
bacteria, the spores will withstand the action of live steam for as long 
as ten to twelve minutes or more. 

Whenever the spores are brought into favorable condition for 
bacterial growth, as to temperature, moisture and nutrition, they 
return to the vegetative form and then are capable of multiplication 
by fission in the ordinary way. 

Reproduction.- — Bacteria multiply and reproduce themselves by 
cleavage or fission. A young individual increases in size up to the 
limits of the adult form, when by simple cleavage at right angles to 
the long axis, the cell divides into two individuals. 

Morphology Due to Cleavage. — According to limitations imposed 
by cleavage directors, the cocci assume a chain appearance, or a 
grape-like appearance, or an arrangement in packets or cubes having 
three diameters. This gives rise to the 

Staphylococcus (plural, staphylococci), from a Greek word referring 
to the shape of a bunch of grapes. 

12 


i7» 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Streptococcus (plural, streptococci), from a Greek word meaning 
chain-shaped. 

Sarcina, package-shaped or cubical. 

Form of Cell Groups after Cleavage. — The individual bacteria 
after cleavage may separate, or cohere. The amount of cohesion, 
together with the plane of cleavage, determines the various forms 
of the cell groups. Thus, among the cocci, diplo- or double forms 
may result giving rise to distinguishing morphological character- 
istics. Similarly among the bacilli characteristic forms result as 
single individuals and others which form chains of various lengths. 

Rapidity of Growth and Multiplication. — The rapidity with which 
bacteria grow and multiply is dependent upon species and environ- 
ment. The rapidity of the growth is surprising. Under favorable 
conditions they may elongate and divide every twenty or thirty 
minutes. If they should continue to reproduce at this rate for 
twenty-four hours a single individual would have 17 million de- 
scendants. If each^of these should continue to grow at the same rate, 
each would have in twenty-four hours more, 17 million offspring, 
and then the numbers would develop beyond conception. How- 
ever, such multiplication is not possible under natural or even 
artificial conditions, both on account of lack of nutritive material 
and because of the inhibition of the growth of the bacteria by their 
own products. If they did multiply at this rate in a few days there 
would be no room in the world but bacteria. 

Chemical Composition of Bacteria. — The quantitative chemical 
composition of bacteria is subject to wide variations, dependent 
upon the nutritive materials furnished them. About 80 to 85 
per cent, of the bacterial body is water; proteid substances constitute 
about 50 to 80 per cent, of the dry residue. When these are extracted, 
there remain fats, in some cases wax, in some bacteria traces of 
cellulose appear, and the remainder consists of 1 to 2 per cent. ash. 

The proteids consist partly of nucleo-proteids, globulins, and 
protein substances differing materially from ordinary proteids. 
Toxic substances known as endotoxins to distinguish them from 
bacterial poisons secreted by certain bacteria during the process of 
growth, also occur. 


TAXONOMY 


179 


Some Bacteria Producing Diseases in Man or the 
Lower Animals 

Organism Disease 

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus Boils, abscesses, carbuncles 

Streptococcus erysipelatis Erysipelas 

Micrococcus meningitidis Cerebrospinal meningitis 

Micrococcus gonorrhoea; Gonorrhoea 

Micrococcus melitensis Malta fever 

Micrococcus catarrhalis Catarrh 

Bacillus anthracis Anthrax 

Bacterium diphtheria; Diphtheria 

Bacillus typhosus Typhoid fever 

Bacterium influenzae Influenza 

Bacillus tetani Tetanus 

Bacillus leprae Leprosy 

Bacillus chauvei “Blackleg” of cattle 

Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus Emphysematous gangrene 

Bacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis 

Bacterium mallei Glanders 

Streptococcus pneumoniae (Diplococcus pneumoniae) Pneumonia (croupous or 
. fibrinous pneumonia) 

Spirillum cholerae asiaticae Cholera 

Spirillum obermeieri Relapsing fever 

Strep tothrix (Actinomyces) bovis Actinomycosis in cattle 

Some Bacteria Producing Diseases in Plants 

Actinomyces Myricarum Tubercles upon and lesions 

within Myrica and Comp- 
tonia 

Bacterium tumefaciens Crown gall 

Bacterium savastanoi Olive knot 

Bacillus amylovorus Pear blight 

Pseudomonas juglandis Walnut blight 

Bacillus Solanacearum Wilt of Solanaceae 

Bacillus tracheiphilus Wilt of Cucurbits 

Pseudomonas Stewarti Wilt of Sweet Corn 

Mounting and Staining of Bacteria. — The mounting and staining 
of bacteria may be accomplished as follows : 

1. Take the square or round cover slip, which has been previously 
cleaned, out of the alcohol pot. Dry it between filter paper. 

2. Hold it in the bacteriolgic forceps, which is so constructed that 
a spring holds the cover slip firmly while an enlargement of the wire 


i8o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


handle permits the placing of the forceps on the table while the cul- 
ture material is obtained. 

3. Place several drops of distilled water on the cover slip and add a 
loop full of the organism secured from the pure culture in a test tube 
as follows: 

4. Remove the cotton plug by the third and fourth fingers of the 
left hand. 

5. Hold the open test tube between the thumb and forefinger of the 
left hand. 

6. By means of a previously flamed platinum needle, remove a 
little of the culture from the surface of the culture media. 

7. Replace the cotton plug. 

8. Add the culture media to the drop of distilled water on the 
cover slip and distribute this material by stirring. 

9. Evaporate the water on the cover slip to dryness by holding it 
some distance above the Bunsen flame and slowly enough to prevent 
connection circles being formed by the material affixed to the cover. 

10. Pass the cover glass three times through the Bunsen flame. 

11. Apply the stain, which should remain long enough to stain the 
objects. 

12. Wash off the stain with distilled water. 

13. Dry the cover glass above the flame. 

14. Apply a drop of balsam, turn the cover slip over and drop it on 
to the center of a glass slide previously provided and cleaned for this 
purpose. 

Gram’s Method. — This is a method of differential bleaching after 
a stain. The cover glass preparations or sections are passed from 
absolute alcohol into Ehrlich’s anilin gentian violet, where they 
remain one to three minutes, except tubercle bacilli preparations 
which remain commonly twelve to twenty-four hours. They are 
then placed for one to three minutes (occasionally five minutes) in 
iodine potassium iodide water (iodine crystals 1, potass, iodide 2, 
water 300), with or without washing lightly in alcohol. In this 
they remain one to three minutes. They are then placed in absolute 
alcohol until sufficiently bleached, after which they are cleared in 
clove oil and mounted in balsam. 

Certain organisms, when stained by this method give up the stain 


TAXONOMY 


181 


and are called “Gram negative;” others retain the color and are 
called “Gram positive.” Examples of the latter are B. diphtheriae, 
Bacillus anthracis, and Bacillus tetani. 

Stains. — One of the most useful bacteriologic stains is Ziehl's 
Carbol Fuchsin, prepared as follows: 

Fuchsin (basic), i. 

Absolute Alcohol, i. 

Carbolic Acid (5 per cent, aqueous solution), 100. 

The fuchsin should be dissolved first in the alcohol and then the 
two fluids mixed. 

Ehrlich’s Anilin Water Gentian Violet. — Anilin Oil Water, 75 
parts. 

Sat. Sol. Gentian Violet in Alcohol, 25 parts. 

Anilin oil water is made by adding 2 mils anilin to 98 mils distilled 
water; shake violently. Filter through filter paper several times. 


Loffler’s Methylene-blue. — 

Sat. sol. Methylene-blue in Alcohol 30 mils 

Sol. KOH in distilled water (1:10,000) 100 mils 

Mix the solutions. 


Stain for “Acid Proof” Bacteria Including B. Tuberculosis. — 

1. Flood the cover glass with Ziehl’s carbol fuchsin and boil over 
the flame for thirty seconds. 

2. Wash and decolorize with a 2 per cent, solution of HC1 in 
80 to 95 per cent, alcohol until the thinner portions of the film 
show no red color. 

3. Wash in water. 

4. Counter stain for contrast with Lofiler’s Methylene-blue. 

5. Wash and examine. 

Van Ermengem’s Flagella Stain. — 1. Mordant: 


Osmic acid (2 per cent, aqueous solution) 50 

Tannin (10 to 25 per cent, in water) 100 


Four drops of glacial acetic acid may be added to this. 

2. Silver Bath: 

Dissolve 0.25 to 0.5 per cent, nitrate of silver in distilled water in a 
clean bottle. 


182 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


3. Reducing and Strengthening Bath: 


Gallic acid 5 

Tannin 3 

Fused sodium acetate 10 

Distilled water 350 


The flamed cover glass is first covered with the mordant for one- 
half hour, or if in a thermostat at 5o°C. for five to ten minutes. 
The mordant is then carefully removed by thorough washing in 
water, alcohol and water. The cover (film side up) is now put into 
the silver bath (a few mils in a clean beaker or watch glass) for a 
few seconds, during which time it is gently agitated. Without 
rinsing it is next put into a few mils of the reducing solution and 
gently agitated until the fluid begins to blacken. It is then washed 
in water and examined. If not stained deeply enough the cover is 
returned to the silver bath. It is finally dried and mounted in 
balsam. All the dishes must be scrupulously clean. The fluids 
must not be contaminated by the fingers nor by dipping iron or 
steel instruments into them. 

2. Cyanophyce^; 

Plants which are sometimes termed blue-green alga. They con- 
tain chlorophyll, a green pigment and phycocyanin, a blue pigment, 
a combination giving a blue-green aspect to the plants of this group. 
Found everywhere in fresh and salt water and also on damp logs, 
rocks, bark of trees, stonewalls, etc. Examples: Oscillatoria, Glce- 
ocapsa, and Nostoc. 

Gloeocapsa. — This blue-green alga is commonly found on old, 
damp flower pots in greenhouses and on damp rocks and walls 
near springs, where it forms slimy masses. Under the micro- 
scope a mount of Gloeocapsa will be seen to consist of isolated pro- 
toplasts and groups of protoplasts, surrounded by concentric gela- 
tinous envelopes. Each protoplast consists of a protoplasmic mass 
which contains blue and green pigments. No definitely organized 
nucleus is apparent but chromatin in the form of granules is 
scattered through the protoplasm. The whole is surrounded by a 


TAXONOMY 


183 

cell wall which undergoes mucilaginous modification producing thus 
the soft gelatinous envelopes which encircle parent-, daughter-, grand- 
daughter- and even great-granddaughter-cells. 


Fig. 73. — A, B, C, D, E, Gloeocapsa\ F, Oscillaloria showing a dead cell (d) 
which marks a place of separation into segments. (A), Gloeocapsa, parent cell 
composed of central protoplast containing scattered chromatin granules, sur- 
rounded by cell wall and 3 mucliaginous envelopes; ( B ), parent cell is shown 
elongated, the protoplast in process of division to form two daughter protoplasts; 
(C), daughter protoplasts, each surrounded by two gelatinous envelopes and both 
within the original parent envelopes; (D) the daughter protoplasts shown in C 
have just divided to form granddaughter protoplasts which have later separated, 
each forming envelopes of its own but all four encircled by the parent envelope. 

Oscillatoria. — Oscillatoria is a blue-green filamentous organism 
found abundantly on the surface of the mud of drains and ditches 
as well as in ponds where the water is foul. The filament is slender 


184 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


and composed of compactly arranged disc-shaped cells which are 
all alike, excepting the terminal ones which appear rounded off. 
The filaments tend to be agglomerated in thick felts or gelatinous 
masses and each possesses peculiar oscil- 
lating and forward movements. At the 
time of reproduction the filament breaks 
up transversely into short segments, each 
of which, by fission occurring among its 
cells, grows into a new filament. 

Nostoc. — Nos toe occurs on the damp 
ground bordering streams or in slow 
bodies of water as greenish or brownish 
tough gelatinous masses varying in size 
from a pea to a hen’s egg. When one of 
these masses is dissected and examined 
microscopically, it is seen to contain, im- 
bedded in a gelatinous matrix, numerous 
serpentine filaments, composed of spherical 
or elliptical cells loosely attached to each 
other in chain-like fashion. Most of the 
cells are of the blue-green vegetative kind 
but there occur at intervals larger cells, 
often devoid of protoplasm which are 
termed heterocysts. Frequently the fila- 
ments break apart on either side of the 
heterocyst, setting free segments of cells 
which grow into new filaments. 

SUBDIVISION II— MYXOMYCETES, OR 
SLIME MOLDS 

Terrestrial or aquatic organisms, fre- 
quently classified as belonging to the 
animal kingdom and found commonly on 
decaying wood, leaves, or humous soil in 
forests. Their vegetative body consists of a naked, multinucleated 
mass of protoplasm called the plasmodium, which has a creeping 
and rolling amoeboid motion, putting out and retracting regions 


Fig. 74. — Nostoc. 
heterocyst. 


(h). a 


TAXONOMY 


185 

of its body called pseudo podia. The size of the plasmodium 
varies from a ten-cent piece to several square feet of surface. 
It is net-like, the net being of irregular dimensions. Like the 
amoeba the outer portion of the plasmodium is clear and watery and 
known as the ectoplasm, the inner portion is granular and called 
the endoplasm. Like the amoeba and unlike other plants, this 
slimy body engulfs solid food by means of its pseudopodia instead of 
admitting it in solution. It is extremely sensitive to light being 
negatively heliotropic, i.e., turning away from the sun’s rays. 


Fig. 75. — A, B, Comalricha nigra. A, Sporangium, natural size; B. capilli- 
tium, 20/1; C, E, Stemonitis fusca; C, sporangium, natural size; D and E, capilli- 
tia, 5/1, 20/1; F, H, Enerthema papillalum, F, unripe; G, mature sporangium, 
1 o / r d Ii, capillitium, 20/1. (C, D. after nature. A. F, G, H. after Roslafinski; 

B, E, after de Bury in Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien I. 1, p. 26.) 

At the time of reproduction, the plasmodium creeps to the surface. 
The whole plasmodium then forms one or more fructifications. 
These fructifications vary from cushion-like masses ( celhallia ) 
to more elevated bodies in which the net-like structure of the plas- 
modium is preserved ( plasmodiocar ps ) to stalked sporangia (spore 
cases). All of the fructifications, however, produce spores. Dur- 
ing wet weather amoeboid protoplasts ( swarm spores ) escape from 
the spores, each developing a single cilium and moving actively 
about. In time the cilia disappear and these swarm spores coalesce 
in smaller then larger groups to form a plasmodium. 


i86 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


SUBDIVISION III. — ALG/E 

Low forms of thallophytes of terrestrial and aquatic distribution 
consisting for the most part of single cells or rows of single cells 
joined end to end to form filaments. The higher forms, however, 
possess structures, which might be compared to stems and leaves of 
higher plants although more rudimentary in structure. They 
contain chlorophyll or some other pigment, and so can use the CO2 
and H 2 0 in the same manner as higher plants, e.g., in assimilating 
and providing for their own nutrition. Archegonia are absent in 
this group. 

Class I. — Chlorophyce^e, the Green Alg,e 

A large assemblage of terrestrial or aquatic plants many of which 
are vastly different from one another. In this group the cells are 
observed to possess distinct nuclei and chromatophores, the latter 
containing a green oil-like pigment called chlorophyll. Reproduc- 
tion is mostly by ciliated cells called zoospores but in some forms is 
accomplished by the fertilization of egg-cells and in others by simple 
division. 

1. Order Protococcales or One-celled Green Algae. — This order 
contains nearly all of the one-celled green algae excepting the 
diatoms and desmids. 

Family Pleurococcaceae. — Pleurococcus vulgaris is a one-celled 
green alga, millions of which, living together in colonial fashion, con- 
stitute the so-called “green stain” that is common on the north 
sides of tree trunks, stone walls and fences. Each organism con- 
sists of a protoplast surrounded by a cell wall of cellulose. The 
protoplast contains a chromatophore, cytoplasm and nucleus. 
Reproduction takes place by the protoplast dividing into two equal 
parts and laying down a cell wall forming two daughter-protoplasts. 
These may again divide to form four granddaughter-protoplasts. 
Still another division may occur as a result of which eight great- 
granddaughter-protoplasts are formed which frequently adhere to 
one another forming colonies. 

2. Order Confervales. — In this order are included a variety of 
green filamentous and membranous forms some of which show sexual 
reproduction. 


TAXONOMY 


l8 7 


Family Ulothricaceae. — Ulothrix zonata, a typical representative 
of this family, is a filamentous organism found growing on stones 
around ponds, on rocks along the shores of lakes, in slow-moving 
streams, etc. Each filament is unbranched and consists of a row of 
short cells, one of the terminal cells, called the rhizoid cell, being 
elongated and serving as an attachment structure. Each cell con- 
sists of a cell wall of cellulose enclosing cytoplasm, a nucleus and a 
wide band-shaped green chromatophore, more or less cylindrical in 
shape. The chromatophore lies next to the cell wall and contains 
pyrenoids or starch-forming centers. The filament grows in length 
by the fission of its various component cells. After attaining a 


Fig. 76. — Vaucheria lerreslris. anth, antheridium (empty) ; o, oogonia. (Gager.) 

certain size it reproduces either asexually or sexually. Asexual 
reproduction takes place by certain cells becoming altered in their 
protoplasmic contents through division to form rounded or pear- 
shaped zoospores. Each zoospore contains a red pigment spot and 
bears four cilia (protoplasmic outgrowths). The zoospores escape 
into the water by lateral openings in the walls of cells containing 
them. They swim rapidly about, propelled by their cilia, and ere 
long attach themselves to various objects and grow into Ulothrix 
filaments. The sexual method of reproduction is effected through 
the production of many gametes, in cells of the filament, which re- 
semble the zoospores in shape but differ from them in being smaller 
and possessing but two cilia. These escape into the water, and, 
after swimming about for a short time come together in pairs and 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


1 88 

fuse with one another. The product of the fusion of each pair of 
these like gametes is termed a zygospore. The zygospore swims 
about but finally comes to rest, remaining quiescent for a considerable 
length of time. It then enlarges and its protoplasmic content divides 
to form several zoospores which, escaping from the cell, swim about 
for a while and finally, attaching themselves to objects, grow into 
filamentous Ulothrix organisms. 

3. Order Conjugales. — To this order belong the desmids and 
pond scums which are distinguished from other green algae by 
presenting no motile stages in their life histories. They are all of 
fresh-water habit and reproduce by conjugation. 

Family Desmidaceae. — The desmid family includes a number of 
genera of unicellular as well as filamentous green plants that present 
a variety of shapes. Each unicellular desmid is characterized by 
being composed of two like halves frequently separated by each 
other by a constriction called the isthmus. In each half there is a 
chromatophore containing pyrenoids. The nucleus is found in the 
isthmus. Reproduction is accomplished either asexually by fission 
or sexually by conjugation. 

Family Zygnemaceae. — This is a family of pond scums including 
the well-known genera, Spirogyra and Zygnema. 

Spirogyra or Brooksilk is a filamentous organism found suspended 
or floating in masses in quiet water. Each filament when examined 
microscopically will be found to consist of more or less elongated 
cylindrical cells arranged end to end, the terminal cells having 
rounded extremities. Each cell has a cell wall of cellulose within 
which is to be found a thin film of ectoplasm. One or more spirally 
shaped chromalophores will be seen directly within this area. Each 
chromatophore contains chlorophyll and a number of pyrenoids. 
In the center of the cell the nucleus is found. Fine strands of 
protoplasm hold it in place and run out to the ectoplasm. 

Under favorable circumstances the cells of Spirogyra increase 
rather rapidly in length. Abnormally long cells are not seen, 
however, because the elongating cells speedily divide, forming two 
daughter-cells. Under the best of conditions, division may occur 
every night. In this way the filaments are rapidly made longer. 
Sooner or later they break and in this way the plant multiplies. 


TAXONOMY 


189 

Spirogyra has also a process of sexual reproduction known as 
conjugation. This process occurs normally from March to June 
and July, but can be induced in the laboratory by allowing the water 


Fig. 77. — Spirogyra sp. A, terminal portion of vegetative filament; B, stages 
of scalariform conjucation; C, preparation for lateral conjugation; D, zygospores 
formed by lateral conjugation. (Gager.) 


in the vessel in which it is growing to slowly evaporate. Two fila- 
ments arrange themselves side by side, and the cells lying opposite 
each other undergo internal changes so as to form gametes or sexual 


190 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


cells. Each protrudes a process or conjugation tube; these unite 
and the protoplasm from one cell passes over and coalesces with that 
in the cell opposite. The result of the process is a new cell called a 
zygospore or zygote. This is set free by decay of the walls of the old 
cell and falls to the bottom of the water, there to undergo a resting 
stage until favorable conditions for growth arise. 

4. Order Diatomales.- — Family Diatomaceae. — This family com- 
prises several thousand species of unicellular plants called Diatoms 
which are found in fresh, brackish and salt water forming much of the 
diet of small animals. While unicellular they frequently are united 
in colonies. They all possess chromatophores containing chloro- 
phyll but this green pigment is often obscured by the presence also 
of a brown pigment. 

The most striking peculiarity of the group is the structure of the 
enclosing cell wall. This is in the form of a siliceous case consisting 
of two valves which fit into each other like the halves of a pill box. 
The valves, which are beautifully sculptured, are similar except that 
one is slightly larger than the other so as to fit over it. Diatoms 
vary in form being either circular, linear, elliptical, cylindrical 
rhomboidal, triangular or fan-shaped, etc. Some are borne on the 
ends of stalks, while others are held in gelatinous masses. Their 
siliceous skeleta are deposited constantly on the floor of ponds, rivers, 
lakes and seas, often in such abundance as to form Diatomaceous 
earths or Kieselguhrs (Siliceous Earths). Huge geological deposits 
of this material have been found in various parts of the world. The 
most remarkable for extent as well as for the number and beauty of 
the species contained in it is that at Richmond, Virginia. It is in 
many places 25 to 40 feet in depth and extends for many miles. 
Many of the diatomaceous earths are useful as absorbent and polish- 
ing powders. The United States Pharmacopoeia IX recognizes, under 
the name of Terra Silicea Purificata (Purified Siliceous Earth), a 
powder consisting of the frustules and fragments of diatoms which 
has been purified by boiling with diluted hydrochloric acid, washed 
and calcined. 

Diatoms exhibit two modes of reproduction, viz., fission and for- 
mation of an auxospore. The more common method is that of 
fission but this is peculiar for these plants. The cell-contents within 


TAXONOMY 


191 

the siliceous case separate into two distinct masses and the valves 
separate slightly from each other. As the two daughter-masses 
become more and more developed, the valves of the parent-cell are 
pushed more widely apart. Each of the two masses secretes for 
itself a new valve on the side opposite to the original valve. When 
the process is completed the girdle of the parent-diatom separates 
and the two daughter-diatoms thus become independent plants. 
Each of these possesses one of the parent valves and a second, which 
it has formed itself more or less parallel to the first. 

In a number of species, repeated fission results in the formation 
of succeedingly smaller and weaker individuals. This process, 
however, goes on only for a certain number of generations until 
the decrease of size has reached a limit for the species, when the 
plant is rejuvenated by the formation of an auxospore. This may 
be formed with or without the conjugation of two parent-protoplasts. 
In either case the auxospore resulting undergoes a resting stage after 
which it develops new valves. The newly formed diatom is then 
several times the size of the individual or individuals which con- 
tributed to its formation and is endowed with renewed vigor for 
growth and division. 

5. Order Siphonales {Siphon Alga). — This group is characterized 
by the peculiarity that the organisms constituting it possess proto- 
plasm containing myriads of nuclei within a common filament or 
cell cavity not segmented by cell walls. The term canocyte has 
been given to such structures which consist of a many-nucleated mass 
of protoplasm surrounded by a cell wall. Some of the siphon algae 
reproduce by zoospore formation, others by conjugation as well as 
zoospore formation while Vancheria, the green felt, stands out alone 
in reproducing both by the formation of a single zoospore and 
by the production also of oogonia and antheridia with resultant 
fertilization. 

6. Order Charales {The Stoneworts). — Family Characeae.— The 

highest group of algae, possessing forms which are differentiated into 
stems, leaves and rhizoids. 

Chara, a type of this family, is a submerged fresh-water plant 
which fastens itself to the muddy bottom of ponds, ditches and slow 
streams by means of slender filaments called rhizoids. From these 


192 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


there arises a many noded (jointed) stem which bears whorls of 
slender green leaves at its nodes. Branches are also found issuing 
from some of the nodes which duplicate in appearance the main 
stem. Reproduction is either asexual or sexual. Asexual repro- 
duction is accomplished by means of tuber-like bodies borne on 
submerged parts or by special branches which form rhizoids on their 
lower nodes and later become separated from the parent plant. 
Sexual reproduction is effected through the formation of oogonia 
(female sex organs) and antheridia (male sex organs). These in 
some species are borne on the same plant; in others, on different 
plants. In all cases the sexual organs are produced at the nodes. 
The oogonium develops within itself a large ovum or egg. The 
antheridium produces within its wall numerous motile sperms. 
Upon the maturation of the antheridium the sperms are liberated 
into the water, and, propelled by their cilia, find their way to the 
oogonia which they enter, the one best adapted fusing with the egg 
in each case and fertilizing it. The resultant cell is called the 
oospore. This undergoes a resting stage and later germinates as a 
proembryo. The proembryo consists of a simple filament and a 
long rhizoidal cell. From this proembryo, the adult stem arises as a 
side branch. 

Class II. — Phaeophyce^e, tiie Brown Alg^: 

Mostly marine forms showing great diversity in the form of their 
vegetative bodies. They occur for the most part in salt water be- 
tween the high and low tide marks. Their bodies are usually fixed 
to some support in the water by means of a holdfast, and are often 
highly differentiated both as to form and tissues. Some reach 
hundreds of feet in length as, for example, Macrocyslis which grows 
in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California. They all contain 
the brown pigment called phycophcein and the green pigment, chloro- 
phyll both of which are present in their chromatophores. A yel- 
lowish pigment called phycoxanthin has also been isolated from some 
of the species. Many of the kelps and rockweeds belonging to this 
class have long been sources of iodine, potash and sodium. 

A Filamentous Brown Alga, Ectocarpus Siliculosus. — Ecto- 
corpus occurs as tufts of branching filaments, each of which 


TAXONOMY 


I 93 


is many-celled. These tufts are found on eelgrass or other algae 
as well as attached to pilings of wharves in salt water. It is a 
striking illustration of the simplest form of brown algae and 
serves to show the beginning of a more complex form of repro- 
duction than that observed in 
the forms studied up to this 
time. On examination of a 
filament we find it to consist 
of many cells joined end to 
end. A single cell has a cell 
wall of cellulose, just within 
the cell wall there is a layer 
of protoplasm. Going toward 
the center we find an irregular 
chromatophore containing a 
brown pigment called phyco- 
phaein. From certain cells of 
the filament spherical sporangia 
(spore cases) arise, which are 
unicellular. They contain 
numerous biciliate zoospores , 
which escape into the sea 
water, move about and later 
develop into new Ectocarpus 
plants. Along the filaments 
several branches will be seen. 

Some of these have undergone 
division into several cells and 
these again into still smaller 
cells until many-celled cham- 
bers have resulted, which are 
called plnrilocular sporangia. 

Each cell of a plurilocular 
sporangium contains a gamete or sexual cell, which resembles 
in many details a zoospore. When the sporangium matures 
these gametes are discharged into the salt water. They fuse 
together in pairs and form zygospores. Each zygospore under- 

13 


Pig. 78. — End of large branch of 
Fucus vesiculosus (natural size); e, re- 
ceptacle; b, air bladder. . 


i 9 4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


goes a resting stage and upon the advent of favorable conditions 
develops into a new Ectocarpiis filament. 

Fucus Vesiculosus (The Bladder Wrack) . — This form, a brown 
alga, occurs as a flat thallus, which forks repeatedly, a type of 
branching called dichotomous. It grows near the surface of sea 
water, attached to rocks by means of a basal disc-shaped holdfast. 
In the upper branches of the thallus are to be found air bladders 
which are more or less spherical and usually in pairs. The tips of 
old branches become swollen and are termed receptacles. They 
are dotted over with minute cavities called conceptacles. Within 
these conceptacles the antheridia, or male sexual organs, and the 
archegonia , or female sexual organs, are produced. The conceptacles 
also contain numerous branching filaments called paraphyses, which 
arise from the cells lining the cavities. The antheridia are found as 
outgrowths of these paraphyses and produce sperms or male sexual 
cells. The oogonium is a large, globular, stalked cell and produces 
eight eggs, each of which is a female sexual cell. The eggs and sperm 
escape into the sea water. The eggs float and are surrounded 
by myriads of sperms. One sperm, only, gains an entrance, after 
which its nucleus fuses with that of the egg to form an oospore. 
The oospore at once develops into a new Fucus plant. 

Class III. — Rhodophyce^e, the Red Alg,e 

A greatly diversified group comprising the majority of marine algae 
but represented also by some fresh-water forms. The marine red 
algae are generally found at or just beyond the low water mark. 
Their vegetative bodies vary from simple branching filaments 
through all gradations to forms differentiated into branching stems, 
holdfasts and leaves. It has been observed that many of the higher 
types are composed of numerous filaments which are arranged so 
closely and connected so intimately by protoplasmic processes 
as to resemble the tissues of plants higher up. Their color may be 
red, purple, violet, or reddish-brown or even green and is due to the 
presence of phycoerythrin, a red pigment, which is found in the 
chromatophores with but frequently masking the chlorophyll. 

Chondrus crispus and Gigartina mamillosa yield the official drug 


TAXONOMY 


195 


Chondrus, Irish Moss or Carragheen. Both are purplish-red in 
color. Each consists of a dichotomously branched thallus the 
lower portion of which is differentiated as a stipe or stalk; the basal 
portion of which, called the holdfast, clings to the rock. The upper 
part is several times forked and its terminal segments appear notched 
or bilobed. Scattered here and there over the segments of the thallus 
will be noted sporangia which, when mature, contain tetraspores. 
In Chondrus crispus the sporangia are elliptical and embedded in 
the thallus near its surface, whereas in Gigartina they are ovate and 
project outward from the surface of the segments. Upon the ripen- 

I ing of these structures the spores are discharged into the sea water. 
These sooner or later germinate into new Chondrus or Gigartina 
organisms. The dried mucilaginous substance extracted from 
Gracilaria lichenoides, Gelidium and Gloiopeltis and other species of 
red algae growing in the sea along the eastern coast of Asia con- 
stitutes the drug Agar, a most valuable ingredient in culture media 
[ as well as a laxative. 

Rhodymenia palmata or Irish Dulse is a purplish-red, flat, mem- 
branous, palmately cleft or dichotomous red alga growing on the 
tissues of other algae along northern shores of the Atlantic between 
the low- and high-tide marks. 

SUBDIVISION IV.— FUNGI 

This great assemblage of thallophytes is characterized by the total 
absence of chlorophyll and so its members possess no independent 
power of manufacturing food materials such as starches, sugars, etc., 
from C0 2 and H 2 0. Consequently they are either parasites , depend- 
ing for their nourishment upon other living plants or animals, called 
hosts; or saprophytes, depending upon decaying animal or vegetable 
matter in solution. Some forms are able to live either as saprophytes 
or parasites while others are restricted to either the parasitic or 
saprophytic habit. The vegetative body of a fungus is known as a 
mycelium. It consists of interlacing and branching filaments 
called hyphce, which ramify through decaying matter or invade the 
tissues of living organisms and derive nourishment therefrom. In 
the case of parasites, the absorbing connections which are more or less 


196 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


specialized and definite are called haustoria. In the higher forms the 
hyphae become consolidated into false tissues, and assume definite 
shapes according to the species. Of this character are the fructi- 
fying organs which constitute the above ground parts of Puff 
Balls, Cup Fungi, Mushrooms, etc. There are four classes of 
Fungi, viz.: Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and 
Fungi Imperfecti. 

Class I. — Phycomycetes, or Alga-like Fungi 

The Phycomycetes represent a small group of fungi showing close 
affinity with the green algae. Their mycelium is composed of coeno- 
cytic hyphae, which suggests a close relation with the Siphonales 
group of green algae. Their sexual organs are likewise similar in 
structure. Transverse septa appear upon the formation of repro- 
ductive organs separating these structures from the vegetative 
hyphae. 

Sub-class A. — Zygomycetes 
(Sexual apparatus shows isogamy) 

Order 1.- Mucorales, the black molds, mostly saprophytic. Ex- 
amples: Mucor Mucedo, Rhizopus nigricans , Thamnidium, Pilobolus. 

Rhizopus nigricans (Mucor stolonifer), commonly known as 
“ Black Mold” or “ Black Bread Mold,” is frequently found on bread, 
jellies, syrups, acetic pharmaceutical extracts and other substrata, 
where it forms a dense thready mycelium bearing numerous black 
tiny spore cases. The source of this mold is the spores which are 
found in the air or water with which the attacked substratum is 
in contact. Each of these upon germinating sprouts out and forms 
three kinds of hyphae, viz.: rhizoidal or submerged hyphae, spor- 
angiophores or aerial hyphae and stoloniferous hyphae. The branch- 
ing rhizoidal hyphae penetrate the substratum and secrete a dias- 
tatic ferment which changes the water insoluble carbohydrate 
materials into a soluble sugar which passes into solution and is 
absorbed by their walls. This, upon entering the hyphae, is converted 
into protoplasm, and so the mold increases in size. Sporangiophores 
or aerial hyphae arise vertically or obliquely from a bulged-out 


TAXONOMY 


197 


common base of the rhizoidal hyphae. Each of these when mature 
bears upon its summit a spheroidal sporangium containing numerous 
small brownish multinucleate spores called endospores. The wall 


Fig. 79. — Black mold ( Rhizopus nigricans). A, older plant; myc, mycelia; sph. 
sporangiophore; sp, sporangium; si, stoloniferous hypha produced by A, and 
giving rise at its tip to a new plant, B. Greatly enlarged. (Gager.) 

of the sporangium is beset with asperites of calcium oxalate. Spring- 
ing from the base of the sporangiophores or aerial hypha? one or more 
stoloniferous hypha? traverse a portion of the surface of the sub- 


Fig. 80 . — Rhizopus nigricans. A, Young sporangium, showing columella 
within; B, older sporangium, with the wall removed, showing ripe spores covering 
the columella; C, D, views of the collapsed columella after dissemination of the 
spores. (Gager.) 

stratum and their tips, coming in contact with the substratum, 
swell up forming an adhesive organ or a p pressor him which branches 
out below into a cluster of spreading submerged hyphae and above 


198 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

into several aerial hyphae bearing sporangia. This method of 
growth proceeds until the entire surface of the nutritive medium is 
covered with a dense fluffy mycelium. 

Rhizopus reproduces by two methods. The most common one is 
that of internal cell formation. In this asexual method a transverse 
wall is laid downm the sporangiophore near its tip. The terminal cell 
thus formed swells up, becoming globular in shape and its protoplas- 
mic contents become changed to form numerous spores^within the 


wall of the sporangium or enlarged terminal cell of the sporangio- 
phore. The partition wall, separating the lumen of the sporangium 
from that of the sporangiophore, bulges into the sporangium as a dome- 
shaped structure which is termed the columella. Upon the ripening 
of the spores the wall of the spore case bursts liberating them. These 
falling upon moist nutrient substrata, germinate and ultimately 
form new Rhizopus plants. Under certain conditions Rhizopus 
reproduces sexually. Thicker and shorter club-shaped hyphae 
arise on opposite branches of the mycelium. A partition wall is 


TAXONOMY 


199 


laid down in each ol' these a short distance from its tip and the 
contents of each end cell then becomes a gamete or sexual cell. 
The apical cells of the tips of opposite hyphae then meet, a solution 
of the cell walls at the point of contact takes place and the gametes 
of both end cells fuse to form a zygospore. This enlarges and devel- 
ops a highly resistant wall. After a period of rest, upon coming 
into contact with a nutrient medium, it germinates into an elongated 
sporangiophore which develops a sporangium at its summit. 

Mucor mucedo, another closely allied species, found growing on 
old nuts, fleshy fruits, bread and horse manure, resembles Rhizopus 
nigricans in many respects but differs from it by the formation of 
sporangiophores singly instead of in clusters. 

Thamnidium differs from Rhizopus and Mucor in the development 
of two kinds of sporangia, microsporangia and megasporangia. The 
sporangiophore produces a terminal large megasporangium possess- 
ing a columella and whorls of side branches which bear smaller 
microsporangia in which the columella is frequently wanting. 

Sub-class B. — Oomycetes 
(Sexual apparatus heterogamous) 

Order 1. — Chytridiales. — Example: Synchytrium, a form para- 
sitic on seed plants and forming blister-like swellings. 

Order 2.- — Saprolegniales. — Water molds which attack fishes, 
frogs, water insects, and decaying plants and animals. Example: 
Saprolegnia. 

Order 3. — Peronosporales. — Mildews, destructive parasites, liv- 
ing in the tissues of their hosts and effecting pathologic changes. 
Example: Albugo , the blister blight, a white rust attacking members 
of the Cruciferce and Phytophthora, producing potato rot. 

Class II. — Ascomycetes, the Sac Fungi 

Mycelium composed of septate filaments and life history charac- 
terized by the appearance of a sac called an asciis in which ascos pores 
are formed. The largest class of fungi. 

Order 1.— Protoascales. — Plants with asci borne free or at the 
ends of hyphae, definite fruiting bodies being absent. Each ascus 


200 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


usually develops four ascospores. To this order belong Exoascus, 
which is responsible for the abnormal development of tufted masses 
of branches on a number of trees and shrubs, and the yeasts (Sac- 
charomycetaceae) many of which produce fermentation. 

Yeasts are unicellular plants of spheroidal, oval, elliptical, pyriform 
or sausage shape which reproduce by budding. They occur either 
in the wild or cultivated condition and are generally found capable of 
breaking down some form of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. 

According to the kind or kinds of sugar fermented Hansen in 
1888 classified the yeasts as follows: 

1. Species which ferment dextrose, maltose and saccharose: 
Saccharomyces cerevisice I, S. ellipsoideus I, S. ellipsoideus II, 
S. pastorianus I, S. pastorianns II, S. pastorianus III. 

2. Species which ferment dextrose and saccharose, but notmaltose: 
Saccharomyces marxianus, S. exiguus, S. saturnus , S. Ludwigii. 

3. Species which ferment dextrose, but neither saccharose nor 
maltose: Saccharomyces mali Duclauxii. 

4. Species which ferment dextrose and maltose, but not saccharose: 
Saccharomyces n. sp. obtained from the stomach of the honey-bee. 

5. Species which ferment neither maltose, dextrose nor saccharose: 
Saccharomyces anomalies var. belgicus, S. farinosus, S. hyalosporus, 
S. membranif aciens . 

The two most important yeasts in the fermentation industries are 
Saccharomyces cerevisice and Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. 

Saccharomyces cerevisice, commonly called Brewer’s Yeast, is a 
cultivated species with many strains. It is used extensively in the 
brewing and baking industries and in recent years has met with 
considerable esteem by the medical profession in the treatment of 
certain skin diseases. 

When examined under the microscope it is found to be somewhat 
spheroidal to ellipsoidal in outline, 8 to 12/z long, and 8 to 10/z broad. 
It consists of an outer cell wall of fungous cellulose enclosing cyto- 
plasm and a nucleus, the latter invisible without special staining. 
The cytoplasm is differentiated into a clear outer membrane lying 
directly within the cell wall and termed the ectoplasm and an inner 
granular region, the endoplasm. In the young condition of the 
yeast cell numerous glycogen vacuoles are found scattered more or 


TAXONOMY 


201 


less uniformly throughout this region but as the cell matures these 
coalesce, until, in a very old cell, a huge glycogen vacuole may be seen 
occupying most of the interior, with the cytoplasm and nucleus 
pushed up against the cell wall and forming there a very narrow layer. 


Fig. 82. — Yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisice, the variety known as brewers’ bot- 
tom yeast; a, spore formation; b, elongated cells. ( After Schneider, Pharmaceu- 
tical Bacteriology.) 


Yeast plants grow in dilute saccharine solutions containing dis- 
solved nitrogenous substances such as beerwort, Pasteur’s solution, 
grape juice, etc. Here they are constantly wasting away and as 
constantly being built up. The question may well arise: “How 
do they obtain the material necessary for growth and repair?” The 
answer, in a general way, is not difficult. The fluid in which they 
live is a solution of sugars and of nitrogenous and other matters. 


202 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The cell walls are readily permeable. Food substances diffuse 
through it into the cell, and by a series of changes (which, indeed, 
it is no easy matter to understand) are converted into new living 
substance. The waste products likewise diffuse readily outward. 
This method of nutrition is called saprophytic, and the yeast plant 
is said to be a saprophyte. 

A striking fact must be briefly mentioned in connection with the 
metabolism of yeast. Many organisms exercise a profound effect 
on the medium in which they live. Yeast causes a wholesale destruc- 
tion of sugar in the surrounding fluid. One of the decomposition 
products of sugar is alcohol. The alcohol of commerce is produced 
by the activity of this plant. 

Saccharomyces has its times of danger and stress when the cells 
perish in great numbers from cold, starvation, poisons, etc. If not 
too suddenly exposed, however, they are able to meet adverse con- 
ditions by eliminating most of their water, suspending physological 
processes, and becoming dormant. Sometimes they enter the rest- 
ing condition after a process of division, when each cell divides into 
four parts, each of which becomes nearly dry and is surrounded by a 
thick wall. Such cells are called ascospores, and their production 
serves both as a method of multiplying the plant and of tiding over 
adverse conditions. They can survive for a long time without 
food or water, and can endure higher temperatures than the active 
cells and almost any degree of cold. 

The dried cells and spores float in the air as dust and so accomplish 
a dispersal of the organism. Doubtless most of them never again 
meet suitable environment and so sooner or later perish. But some 
villi fall into favorable conditions and be able to multiply enormously 
again, and so the species is continued. 

The general method of reproduction in Saccharomyces is that of 
gemmation or budding. A small protuberance of the cell wall com- 
mences to form on the parent-cell. This grows larger and a portion 
of the cytoplasm and nuclear material pass into it. Eventually a 
daughter-bud, which may assume the size of the parent-cell, is formed. 
This generally adheres to the parent-cell and produces one or more 
granddaughter-buds which in turn may produce great-granddaugh- 
ter-buds before separation from the parent-cell takes place. 


TAXONOMY 


203 


There are two varieties of brewer’s yeast, viz.: Top yeasts and 
Bottom yeasts. Top yeasts grow on or near the surface of the liquid 
and produce rapid fermentation at summer temperatures causing 
great quantities of carbon dioxide to arise to the surface and thus 
forming the froth which is characteristic of ale, stout and porter. 

Bottom yeasts grow at about 4°C. at or near the bottom of the 
vat. They are used in the manufacture of lager beers. 


Fig. 83 . — Saccharomyces cerevisea. The form or variety known as brewers' top 
yeast. ( Oberhefe .) 

Compressed yeast (Cerevisue Fermentum Compressum) N. F. 
consists of the mosit, living cells of Saccharomyces cerevisice or of other 
species of Saccharomyces, combined with a starchy or absorbent 
base. 

Saccharomyces ellipsoideus is a wild species, several varieties of 
which are found growing on grapes especially in districts where wine 
is produced. It is termed the true wine yeast to distinguish it 


204 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


from other wild species found in grape juice, like 5. apiculatus and 
5. membranij aciens which exert a deleterious effect in wine produc- 
tion. Its cells are ellipsoidal, 6// long, occurring singly or in rows 
of several generations which are rather loosely joined. 

Order 2. — Pezizales or cup fungi. Examples: Peziza, Lachnea 
and Ascobolus. 

Parasitic or saprophytic plants, whose vegetative bodies consist of a 
mycelium ramifying through the substratum and whose above ground 


Fig. 84 . — Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. A common yeast found on grapes, 
jams, jellies, etc. Budding process is shown in many of the cells as also the vac- 
uoles. ( Schneider , Pharmaceutical Bacteriology.) 


fruiting bodies are sessile or stalked, cup or saucer-shaped structures 
termed apothecia (sing, apothecium) in which a fruiting membrane 
(hymenium) lines the concave upper surface. The asci are usually 
eight-spored and separated from each other by filamentous struc- 
tures called paraphyses. 

Order 3.- Plectascales, the blue and green molds. Examples: 
Aspergillus and Penicillium. 

Penicillium glaucum (green mold or mildew), a type of mildew, 
belonging to the Ascomycetes class of Fungi, forms sage-green crusts 


TAXONOMY 


205 


on bread, jellies, old boots, gloves, and various pharmaceutical 
preparations. It consists of a felt-like mass of interlaced tubular 
hyphae called a mycelium. From the mycelium numerous hyphae 
project into the air and bear a green powder, the spores. These 
hyphae are called aerial hyphce. Other hyphae grow down into the 
substratum and are called submerged hyphce. 

When a small portion of the mycelium is mounted in 10 per cent, 
alcohol and observed under the high-power objective, it will be noted 


Fig. 85. — Saucer-shaped fruit-bodies of Pcziza repanda. {Harshberger , from 
Photo by W. H . Walmsley.) 


that each hypha has a transparent wall and protoplasmic contents 
and is divided by transverse septa into a number of cells. Each 
cell contains protoplasm, which is differentiated into cytoplasm (cell 
protoplasm) and several nuclei. In the cytoplasm will be seen several 
large clear spaces. These are vacuoles and contain water with 
nutritive substances in solution, called cell sap. Each hypha with 
its branches is clearly distinct from every other one. 

The aerial hyphae bear brush-like branches, which become con- 
stricted on their ends into a moniliform aggregation of rounded 


206 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


spores appearing like a row of beads. Each aerial hypha is com- 
posed of a vertical septate branch of the mycelium called the conidio- 
phore, branches of this, which are called secondary conidiophores, and 
chains of spores at the tips of sterigmata (cells bearing conidia) 


Fig. 86. — A, B, Lachnea scutelala. A, Habit; B, ascus with paraphysis; C, D, 
Lachnea hemisphcerica; C, habit; D, ascus with paraphysis; E, Sarcosphcera aren- 
osa habit; F, G, Sarcosphcera coronaria; F, ascus; G, habit; H, Sarcosphtzra areni- 
cola ascus with paraphysis. ( See Die nalilrlichen PJlanzenfamilien I, i, p. 181.) 
( Harshberger .) 

which are called conidia or conidios pores. The conidia form the 
loose green powder characteristic of Penicillium. 

A number of species of Penicillium are useful in the arts. Peni- 
cillium roqueforti is the principal ripening agent of Roquefort, 


TAXONOMY 


207 


Gorgonzola and Stilton cheeses. It possesses blue-green globular 
conidia 4 to 5 m in diameter. 

Penicillium camemberti is the principal agent in the ripening of 
Camembert cheese. It possesses ellipsoidal bluish-green conidia 
4.5 to 5. 5 m in diameter. 


Fig. 87. — Three aerial hyphae showing the characteristic brush-like branching 
and spore formation of Penicillium glaucum. This fungus si a true saprophyte 
and is never found on living fruits or vegetables, a, Conidiophore branching 
above into secondary conidiophores; b, sterigmata; c, conidiospores. ( Schneider .) 

Penicillium brevicaule grows on old moist paper and has been used 
to detect the presence of arsenic, for when grown in media contain- 
ing this element, it develops the compound, diethylarsine. It is 
yellowish-brown in color and its conidia are rough and spiny. 


208 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Penicillium expansum is often found on decaying apples where it 
produces brownish coremia. 

Aspergillus herbariorum . — This green mold also named Aspergillus 
glaucus and Eurotium Aspergillus glaucus is frequently found on 
fleshy drugs which have not been properly dried. It has also been 
observed on dried herbarium material, old extracts, on jams, jellies, 


Fig. 88. — Penicillium Roqueforti. a, Part of a conidiophore; b, c, other types 
of branching; d, young conidiophore, just branching, e, f, conidiiferous cells; g, 
h, j, diagrams of types of fructification, k, l, m, n, germinating spores. ( After 
Thom.) 


tobacco, cotton-seed meal, old leather, stale black bread, etc. Like 
Penicillium its vegetative body consists of a mycelium consisting of 
aerial and submerged hyphae. It differs from Penicillium, however, 
mainly in not possessing septated conidiophores and by the upper 
portion of the conidiophores being globular. Upon the globular ex- 
tremity of the conidiophores are placed numerous elongated sterig- 
mata which bear chains of grayish-green conidia. These are spher- 


taxc/nomy 


209 


ical and prickly and range from 7 to 30 /* in diameter. Under certain 
conditions closed brownish fruit bodies called perithecia are produced. 
These arise on the surface of the substratum from spirally coiled 


Fig. 89. — Penicillium Camemberli. a, Conidiophore with common type of 
branching with conidiospores; ( b ), a common less-branched form; c, d, f, diagrams 
of large fructifications; g, i, j, germinating conidiospores. ( From Bull. 82, Bureau 
of Animal Industry, also After Thom.) 


hyphae and when mature possess numerous asci, each of which con- 
tains five to eight ellipsoidal asco spores. 

Aspergillus oryzoe is a yellowish-green to brown mold which 
14 


210 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


secretes diastase, a valuable digestive ferment, having the power of 
converting starch into sugar and dextrin. For centuries the Japa- 
nese have employed this species in the preparation of rice mash for 
Sake, as well as in manufacture of Miso and Soja sauce. The spher- 
ical conidiospores are 6 to 7 /i in diameter and of a yellowish-green 
color. 

Aspergillus jumi gains is a pathogenic species which produces a 
disease in birds, horses, cattle and even though rarely in man that is 


Fig. 90 . — Penicillium brevicaule. a, Conidiophores and simple chains of con- 
idiospores; b, f, more complex conidial fructifications; c, two young chains of con- 
idiospores; d, e, echinulate conidiospores;, g, h, j, sketches of forms and habits of 
conidial fructifications; k, germinated conidiospores. {After Thom.) 


called aspergillosis. The organ most prone to infection by this 
organism is the lung, although the skin, cornea, ears and other parts 
are also subject to its parasitic influence. It produces short coni- 
diophores with sterigmata bearing long chains of rounded, colorless 
conidia 2.5 to 3/1 in diameter. Harshberger 1 cites the presence of 
perithecia in this organism which are nut-brown, globular, 250 to 
350/1 in diameter, and inclose oval thin-skinned asci with eight red 
lenticular ascospores each of which has a diameter of 4 to 4.5/1. 

Aspergillus niger ( Sterigmatocystis niger ) develops dark brown 
1 “Mycology and Plant Pathology,” p. 147. 


TAXONOMY 


2 1 1 


mycelial masses in which are to be noted slender conidiophores bear- 
ing handle-shaped, branched sterigmata that cut off from their tips 


Fig. 91 . — Aspergillus oryzce associated with yeasts in the making of the Japa- 
nese beverage Sak6. Vegetative hyphse (a) and spore-forming hyphffi (6, c, d) are 
shown. (Schneider, Pharmaceutical Bacteriology.) 


chains of rounded black-brown conidia 3.5 to 5/u in diameter. This 
fungus has been found to produce suppurative inflammation of the ex- 


2X2 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ternal and middle portions of the human ear. It is also a cause of cork 
disease, so often imparting a disagreeable taste to bottled beverages. 


Pig. 92. — Sterigmatocystis niger ( Aspergillus niger) showing conidiophores and 
conidiospore formation with stages in germination of spores. ( Harshberger , after 
Henri Coupin.) 


Order 4. — Tuberales, the truffles. Fungi whose septate mycelium 
is often connected with the roots of trees forming the structure 


TAXONOMY 


213 


known as mycorrhiza. Several species of the genus Tuber growing 
in woods of France, Germany and Italy produce tuberous subter- 
ranean bodies called Truffles, which are highly prized as a table 
delicacy by the inhabitants of these countries. 

Order 5. — Helvellales, the saddle fungi. Fleshy fungi entirely 
saprophytic, living attached to leaf mold or growing in humous soil 
or, in a few cases, on decaying wood. The fleshy fruiting bodies 
(ascocarps) are divided into stalk {stipe) and cap ( pileus ) portions. 


Fig. 93. — The morel, Morchella esculenla. (Gager, from photo by IV. A. Murrill.) 


The external surface of the cap is covered with a layer of asci and 
paraphyses which together constitute the ascigeral layer. To this 
group belong the Morels and the Earth Tongues. 

One of the Morels, Morchella esculenta, is frequently found in 
fire-swept woods. Its fruiting body consists of a hollow, externally 
ridged stipe, bearing upon its summit a fleshy pileus whose outer 
surface is honeycombed with ridges and depressions. The depres- 
sions are covered with an ascigeral layer composed of asci and 
paraphyses. This species is edible. 

Order 6. — Pyrenomycetales, the mildews and black fungi common 
as superficial parasites on various parts of plants. To the black 


214 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


fungi division of this order the Ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea, 
belongs. 

Life History of Claviceps Purpurea. — Through the agency of 
winds or insects the spores (ascospores or conidia) of this organism 
are brought to the young ovaries of the rye ( Secale cereale). 
They germinate into long filaments called hyphae, which, becoming 
entangled to form a mycelium, spread over the ovary, enter it super- 
ficially, secrete a ferment, and cause decomposition of its tissue and 
the resultant formation of a yellow-mucus substance called honey- 
dew, which surrounds chains of moniliform reproductive bodies 
known as conidia. The honey-dew attracts certain insects which 
disseminate the disease to other heads of grain. 

The mycelial threads penetrase deeper and deeper into the ovary 
and soon form a dense tissue which gradually consumes the entire 
substance of the ovary and hardens into a purple somewhat curved 
body called a sclerotium, or official ergot — the resting stage of the 
fungus, Claviceps. 

The ergot falls to the ground and in the following spring sprouts 
into several long stalked, globular heads called stromata or ascocarps. 
Each (fruiting) head or ascocarp has imbedded in its surface nu- 
merous flask-shaped invaginations called perithecia, from the bases 
of which several sacs or asci develop. Within each ascus are 
developed eight filiform spores ( ascospores ) which, when the ascus 
ruptures, are discharged and are carried by the wind to other fields 
of grain, there to begin over a new life cycle. 


Class III. — Basidiomycetes, or Basidia Fungi 

This large class of fungi, including the smuts, rusts, mushrooms, 
gill and tooth fungi, etc., is characterized by the occurrence of a basid- 
ium in the life history. A basidium is the swollen end of a hypha 
consisting of one or four cells and giving rise to branches called 
sterigmata, each of which cuts off at its tip a spore, called a 
basidiospore. In addition to the basidiospores, some forms also 
produce spores termed chlamyd os pores. 


TAXONOMY 


215 


Fig. 94. — A, Balansia claviceps on ear of Paspalum; B-L, Claviceps purpurea; 
B, sclerotium; C, sclerotium with S phacelia; D, cross-section of sphacelial layer; 
E, sprouting sclerotium; F, head of stroma from sclerotium; G, section of same; 
H, section of perithecium; J, ascus; K, germinating ascospore; C, conidiospores 
produced on mycelium. ( See Die natiirlichen PJlanzenfamilien I, 1, p. 371.) 


2l6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 95. — Smut boil of U slilago zece on ear of corn, developed from one in 
fected kernel. ( After Jackson, F. S., Bull. 83, Del. Coll. Agric Exper. Slat. 
December , 1908.) 


TAXONOMY 


217 


Sub-class A. — Protobasidiomycetes 
(Basidium four-celled, each cell bearing a spore) 

Order 1.- — Ustilaginales, the smuts. Destructive parasites which 
attack the flowers of various cereals, occasionally other parts of these 
plants. Example: Ustilago Maydis, the corn smut. The basidio- 
spores in this group are borne on promycelia. 


Fig. 96. — Germination of the chlamydospores of corn smut ( Ustilago zece)\ 1, 
Various stages in germination from corn 3 days after being placed in water; 2, 
spores germinated in contact with air; 3, several days after spores were placed in 
yio per cent, acetic acid, formation of infection threads, a, Spores; b, promy- 
celia; c, basidiospores; d, infection threads; e, detached pieces of mycelia. ( After 
Bull. 57, Univ. III. Agric. Exper. Slat., March, 1900.) 

Ustilago Maydis (Ustilago Zeae) (Corn Smut). — Corn smut is a 
destructive parasite which for a long time was supposed to be con- 
fined to the Indian Corn, but which now is known to occur on 
Mexican Grass. It is the only smut useful in medicine. The 


2x8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


mycelium of the fungus extends through all parts of the infected 
host through the intercellular air spaces and produces large tumor- 
like masses on the ears, tassels, husk, leaves and stem. Each mass is 
filled with spores and covered with a tightly appressed membrane 
which has a whitish appearance like German silver. The spores 
are at first a dark olive-green, but on maturity are dark brown. 
They are sub-spherical and show prominent spines. They arise 
by the division of the septate mycelium into thick-walled echinulate 
resting spores called chlamydospores or brand spores. These spores 
fall to the ground and pass the winter. In the spring each germinates 
into a three- or four-celled filament called a promycelium, from the 
cells of which basidiospores arise. The basidiospores develop a 
mycelium which penetrates the seedling of the host plant. 

Order 2. — Uredinales, the rusts. Obligate parasites possessing 
a septated branched mycelium which ramifies through the inter- 
cellular-air-spaces of the host and sends haustoria into the cell 
cavities. The different stages of their life cycle are either restricted 
to one host or distributed between two or more hosts. An outline 
of the life history of the wheat rust will give an idea of the peculiari- 
ties of the group. ' 

The Wheat Rust (Puccinia Graminis). — If we examine the wheat 
plant just before harvest we will find on the stems and leaves 
some rust-red lines. The presence of the mycelium of the fungus in 
the intercellular spaces of the host does not kill the host directly 
or appear to stunt its growth, but the effect of the parasite on the 
host is seen when the grains mature. The grains are small and 
mushy, due to the fact that the nutrition of the host had been dis- 
turbed and the formation of starch in the grains inhibited. The 
mycelium is localized and gives rise underneath the epidermis to 
rounded egg-shaped spores attached to it by short pedicels. The 
spores are produced in such numbers that the space beneath is too 
confined. As the long epidermal cells of grasses run longitudinally, 
the pressure of the spore masses from within causes the epidermis to 
crack and its edges become turned back. Through the resultant 
cleft the summer spores or uredos pores are thrust out. These uredo- 
spores are orange-brown in color and covered with minute spines. 
The mass of them has been called a uredinium. These spores are 


TAXONOMY 


219 


detached from the pedicels and blown by the wind to healthy plants. 
After summer is over and dry weather comes on, an examination of 
stubble in the field (blades of grass and stems of wheat left carelessly), 
these rust-red lines are replaced by brownish-black spores called 
teleutospores (teliospores). A mass of these is known as a telium. 
The summer stage on wheat is known as Uredo linearis. 

The autumn stage on wheat is known as Puccinia graminis. 


Fig. 97. — Spore forms of wheat rust, Pucainia graminis. A, Section through 
barberry leaf showing pycnia on upper surface and aecia on lower; B, two uredinio- 
spores; C, germinating urediniospore ; D, teliosorus showing several teliospores; 
E, single two-celled teliospore; F, germinating teliospore with four-celled basidium 
and two basidiospores; G, basidiospore growing on barberry leaf. ( Harshberger , 
adapted from deBary.) 

The teleutospores are two-celled and have thick walls and per- 
sistent pedicels. They remain attached to the stubble until the 
following spring and then either one or both cells composing them 
produce an outgrowth known as a promycelium (nothing but a 
basidium divided transversely into four cells). Each cell of the 
basidium is capable of producing a branch, at the tip of which a 
basidiospore is formed. These basidiospores are blown to the 
Barberry (Berberis) and infect the leaves of this plant. The 
mycelium runs in the intercellular air spaces and causes the appear- 


220 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


ance of a number of small depressions on the upper side of the leaf. 
These in section are a rich chocolate brown and known as sperma- 
gonia. In the center of a spermagonium are produced hyphse, which 
project out to its orifice and obstrict off minute spores called sper- 
macia. On the opposite side of the leaf cup-shaped depressions 
are formed, each with a limiting membrane (peridium). Within 
the cup-shaped depression thousands of spores are formed in chains 
closely packed together. These are the aecidiospores (aeciospores). 
The cluster cup is called an Ticidium (/Ecium). These secio- 
spores are conveyed to wheat and cause infection, thus completing 
the life cycle. 

Order 3. — Auricular iales. — The so-called “ear fungi” which occur 
on the bark of many plants, on wooden fences, etc., as auriculate 
growths which when young are jelly-like and brilliantly colored, 
when old, hard, grayish and considerably wrinkled. The ear- 
like fruiting body is known as the sporophore. Its internal surface 
is lined with a hymenium or fruiting body consisting of numerous 
four-celled basidia, each of which cuts off at its tip a basidiospore. 

Order 4. — Tremellales. — Saprophytes which live on decaying wood 
as moist, soft, quivering, gelatinous growths becoming later dry 
and horny. 

Sub-class B. — Autobasidiomycetes 

(Mostly fleshy forms characterized by one-celled basidia with generally four, 
occasionally six, eight or two sterigmata each of which cuts off a basidiospore 
at its tip.) 

Division a. Hymenomycetes 

(Hymenium or spore-bearing surface exposed) 

This division of Autobasidiomycete or higher basidionrycete 
fungi comprises the following orders: Dacromycetales, Exobasidiales, 
Thelephorales, Clavariales and Agaricales. 

Order 1.— Dacromycetales. — This order includes the “weeping 
fungi.” One of the most common is Dacromyces deliquescens which 
occurs as a gelatinous body of bright red color on dead wood. The 
basidiospores are formed during a wet period and the fungus swells 
up in the water forming a slimy mass. In addition to basidiospores 


TAXONOMY 


221 


the mycelium may break up into oidiospores, if the wet period is 
prolonged. In consisting of slimy gelatinous masses the “weeping 
fungi” approach the Tremellacea but are distinguished from them 
in the basidium being undivided in the former and divided in the 
latter. 

Order 2.- Exobasidiales. — This group is found growing parasitic- 
ally on shrubs especially those of the heath family. The mycelium 


Pig. 98. — Coral-like fruit-bodies of Clavaria flava. ( Harshberger , from Photo 

by W. II. Walmsley.) 

lives in the tissues of the stems, leaves, sepals and petals and pro- 
duces spongy ileshy yellowish or brownish galls which are popularly 
called “Azalea apples.” The galls are edible. They are covered 
with a hymenium. 

Order 3. Thelephorales, forms appearing on tree trunks as 
leathery incrustations or as bracts on the ground, old logs, etc. 

Order 4. — Clavariales, the coral or fairy club fungi. Fleshy coral 
or club-shaped forms, all of which are saprophytes found in woods 


222 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


growing in bunches out of leaf mold. They are all edible and of a 
white, yellow or some other brilliant color. 

Order 5. — Agaricales, the mushroom or toadstool alliance. Alike 
with the other members of the Basidiomycetes, the plant body con- 
sists of the mycelium, ramifying through the substratum, but the 
part which rises above the surface (the Sporophore) is in most cases 
differentiated into a stalk-like body called a stipe bearing upon its 
summit a cap or pileus, the latter having special surfaces for the 
hymenium. 


Fig. 99. — Boletus felleus in three stages of development. (After Patterson, 
Flora W. and Charles, VeraK., Bull. 175, U . S. Dept. Agric., pi. xxxi, Apr. 29, 
I9I5-) 

Family I. — Hydnaceae, or tooth fungi. This group is charac- 
terized by the hymenium being placed over purple-like, spiny or 
long digitate projections of the pileus. Many of the species of the 
genus Hydnum are edible. 

Family II. — Polyporaceae, or pore fungi. The sporophores or 
fruiting bodies of these fungi are various. They may be entirely 


TAXONOMY 


223 


supinate with pores or shallow depressions on their upper surfaces 
( Merulius ), or mushroom-like {Boletus), or of the nature of woody 
(. Fomes ) or fleshy {Fistulina) brackets. In all cases the hymenium 
or basidial layer lines the inner surface of pores. 

The sporophore of Polyporus officinalis when deprived of its outer 
rind and dried constitutes the official N. F. drug Agaricus. This 
species grows abundantly on various species of pines, spruces and 
larches. 

Family III. — Agaricacese, the gill family, in which the hymenium 
covers blade -like plates of the pileus, called gills, generally occurring 
on the under surface of the same. Examples: Agaricus campeslris, 
the common edible mushroom of fields; Amanita muscaria and 
Amanita phalloides, both of which are poisonous. 

Agaricus Campestris (Common Mushroom). — This plant is an 
edible gill fungus which grows in open, grassy fields during late sum- 
mer and early autumn. It is never found in the forest or on trees or 
fallen trunks, seldom in the mountains. The cultivated form grows 
in specially constructed houses made of boards. A corridor runs 
through these houses so that the mushroom beds can be easily 
reached. In the growth of mushrooms tons of horse manure are 
used. This is covered with loamy soil 1 Y<i inches thick. The whole 
mass is compacted together. Into the resultant beds is introduced 
English-grown spawn, which comes in flat brick-shaped masses (horse 
manure through which mycelium has grown). Pieces of these 
“bricks” are put in the horse manure bed only after the heat has 
first disappeared. The beds are then watered well and in a short 
time the sporophores or fruiting bodies of the fungus spring up. 

The mycelium or vegetative body of Agaricus which develops 
in the soil from spores (basidiospores) is white and thready. On this 
mycelium develops little buttons, first about the size of a pin head, 
becoming later pea size and then assuming a pear-shaped form. At 
this stage the sporophore consists of a cylindrical solid stipe or stalk 
and a pileus or cap. The border of the pileus is joined to the stipe 
by means of a “ partial ■veil.'' 1 Within this veil is found a circular 
cavity, into which the gills grow. At first the stipe grows faster than 
the rest of the fruiting body. The pileus expands transversely and 
the gills keep pace. After a while the veil ruptures, leaving a portion 


224 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


attached to the stipe. This constitutes the annulus or ring (true 
annulus). The hyphae in the pileus form the Tela contexta. If we 
make a section through a gill, the hyphae are seen to run longitudi- 
nally. The central part is called the trama; next and outside trama 
is the sub-hymenium; next, hymenium, consisting of basidia (hence a 
basidial layer). Each basidium bears one or two little points known 
as sterigmata. Each sterigma bears a purplish-brown basidiospore. 
The basidiospores falling to the ground germinate into hyphse and 
these become interlaced to form a mycelium. 


Fig. ioo. — Meadow mushroom ( Agaricus campestris L.). A, view showing 
under side of pileus; g, gills; a, annulus, or remains of the veil attached to the 
stipe; B, side view; s, stipe; a, annulus; p, margin of pileus, showing at intervals 
the remains of the veil. (Gager, after W. A. Murrill.) 


In the wild mushroom the gills are at first pink, in cultivated, 
fawn-colored. Ultimately in wild form the gills turn brownish. 
The spores are purplish-brown. The color of the stipe and upper 
surface of the pileus varies from whitish to a drab color. 

The Amanitas (Poisonous Fungi). — Amanita muscaria and Amanita 
phalloides, commonly known as the “fly agaric” and the “deadly 
agaric” respectively, are very poisonous forms. Amanita muscaria 
is common in coniferous forests, although may occasionally be found 


TAXONOMY 


225 


in grassy places. It occurs singly and not in groups. Amanita 
phalloides is found in woods and borders of fields and, like the fly 
agaric, occurs singly and not in groups. 

Each of these have fruiting bodies (sporophores), which begin at 
the surface of the ground as a button similar to that of the edible 
mushroom. This enlarges and assumes a dumbbell shape. The 
whole button is covered by an outer veil, known as the velum univer- 


Fig. ioi. — D eadly amanita ( Amanita muscaria) showing volva at base of stem 
and frill, like stem ring. (After Chestnut, V. K., Bull. 175, U. S. Dept. Agric., pi. 
i, Apr. 29, 1915.) 


sale, which encloses the pileus, gills and stipe. As the stipe lengthens 
more rapidly than the pileus, the upper part of the veil is stretched 
and finally breaks in its middle portion. The lower part remains as 
a cup, out of which the stipe grows. The upper part is carried up as 
shreds adhering to the margin of the pileus. The lower part is 
called the volva or death cup. The annulus present is a false annulus, 
for it represents a peeling down of the upper part of the stipe. Both 
have chalk-white gills, a white stipe, and white spores. 

16 


226 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


The pileus of Amanita muscaria is yellow, or orange-red; the 
surface is smooth, with prominent warty scales. 

The pileus of Amanita phalloides varies from dull yellow to olive 
to pure white. It does not possess the warty scales found in the 
Amanita muscaria, but occasionally has a few membranous patches. 


Fig. 102. — The deadly amanita, Amanita phalloides. Note the cup at the base 
of the stipe. (Gager, from photo, by E. M. Kitlredge.) 


Division b. — Gasteromycetes 

(Hymenium inclosed) 

Order i . — Lycoperdales, or puff ball alliance. This order includes 
a number of interesting parasites and saprophytes the most common 
of which are the earth stars belonging to the genus Geaster and the 
puff balls, the most common form being Lycoperdon. In these, the 


TAXONOMY 


227 


fruiting sporophore consists for the most part of a shell-like covering 
called the peridium, composed of an outer layer or exoperidium and 
an inner layer or endo peridium. The peridium in the unripe con- 
dition of the sporophore covers a mass of soft cellular tissue called 
the gleba. Upon the ripening of this mass, the interior is seen to be 
divided into many-branched compartments that are separated from 
each other by walls made up of branched hyphae. These walls are 
lined with a hymenium composed of many basidia, each of which 
constricts off usually four basidiospores. The earth stars differ 
from the puff balls in possessing an outer wall or exoperidium which 
splits in star-shaped fashion. 


Fig. 103. — ■ A colony of Puff Balls, Lycoperdon, growing saprophytically upon a 
portion of a rotten log. ( Photograph by author.) 


Order 2. — Nidulariales, the nest fungi. A group of Gasteromy- 
cetes whose sporophores are crucible- or crater-like. These arise 
from a subterranean mycelium and show an outer and inner peridial 
layer. The outer peridium is roughened at its base. The inner 
peridium is leathery and may or may not be continued over the top. 
When mature the crucible-like body shows black seed-like bodies 
inside which resemble eggs in a bird’s nest. Each one of these is 
connected with the inner peridium by a cord which resembles the 
umbilical cord of an animal. These inner bodies are called peridiola 
(sing, peridiolum). Each peridiolum consists of a hard glistening 


228 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


outer layer and a spongy inner layer surrounding a cavity into which 
basidia and basidiospores project. These fungi are found in stiff 
clayey soil. 

Order 3.- Phallales, the carrion or stink-horn fungi. This, the 

highest group of the Autobasidiomy- 
cetes, consists of highly and charac- 
teristically colored forms which, when 
mature, emit most vile and penetrating 
odors. The fruiting body, in each in- 
stance, begins as an egg-shaped struc- 
ture which starts its growth from a 
widely spread underground mycelium of 
chalky- white color. As the “eggs” 
enlarge they push above the surface 
of the ground. The central portion, 
elongating, then breaks through the 
outer or peridial portion, which remains 
as a cup or volva at the base of the 
mature fruit body. Upon the summit 
of the central stalk rests the cup-like 
many-chambered gleba. The basidio- 
spores are imbedded in a greenish fetid 
slime formed by a mucilaginous disin- 
tegration of the substance of the 
hymenium. This fetid green material 
is attractive to carrion flies which visit 
the plants and remove the material with 
its embedded spores. The latter will 

not germinate until after passing 

Fig. 104. — Mature stink- . . , 

horn, Diciyophora duplicate, through the alimentary canal of these 
(H arshber ger, from photo . by W. flies. 

H. Walmsley.) 


Class IV. — Fungi Imperfecti 

An assemblage of varied forms, the life histories of most of which 
are imperfectly understood. In this group are included numerous 
parasites which produce diseases in crop plants. 


TAXONOMY 


229 


SUBDIVISION V— LICHENES, THE LICHENS 


Lichens are variously colored, usually dry and leathery plants, 
consisting of symbioses of algae and fungi. In each case the fungus 
derives its food from materials manufactured by the algae and in 
return extracts water from the substratum and shares it with the 
algae. The association is therefore mutually beneficial. Blue- 
green and Protococcus forms of Green Algae and Ascomycete Fungi 
are for the most part concerned in lichen formation. 


Fig. 105. — A'foliaceous lichen, Physcia slellaris (L.) Nyb., growing on a rock. 
The cup-shaped structures are the fruiting bodies (apothecia). At the leftjare 
seen two very young plants. (Gager.) 


Lichens are found on the bark of trees, on rocks, logs, old fences, 
etc. The body of a lichen shows a differentiation into two regions: 
a more or less compact row of cells on both surfaces, called the epider- 
mis; and an inner portion composed of the mycelium of the fungus. 
The alga is imbedded in this portion. In most cases the'spores are 
borne in asci, which are themselves found in closed or open Apothecia. 

Scales or soredia are found on many lichens. These consist of a 
network of hyphae enclosing algal cells. By becoming detached 
from the parent plant, they develop new lichens and so constitute 
a means of vegetative propagation. 


230 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


According to the manner of growth of the thallus and nature of 
attachment to the substratum, three different sub-groups of lichens 
may be distinguished, viz.: (i) Foliaceous where the thallus is flat, 
leathery and leaf-like and attached to the substratum at different 
points. To this group belong Physcia and Parmelia. (2) Crus- 
taceous, where the thallus closely adheres to rocks and bark of trees. 
To this group belong Graphis and Pertusaria. (3) Fruticose, where 
the thallus is upright and branching. To the last group belong 
Cetraria islandica, species of Cladonia, and Usnea. 


Fig. 106. — Cetraria islandica. (Sayre.) 


To the pharmacist and chemist lichens are chiefly of interest 
because of the coloring principles which they contain. Species of 
Lecanora and Rocella tinctoria yield, when subjected to fermentation, 
the dyes orcein and litmus. Litmus is one of the best indicators in 
volumetric analysis. Cudbear, a purplish-red powder, used exten- 
sively for coloring pharmaceutical preparations in the form of tinc- 
ture, is prepared by treating species of Rocella, Lecanora or other 
lichens with ammonia water. Other lichens, such as Cetraria 
islandica, various species of Parmelia, Usnea and Alectoria, have 
been used in medicine because of demulcent principles which they 
contain. 


TAXONOMY 


231 


DIVISION II. — BRYOPHYTA 


Plants showing a beginning of definite alternation of genera- 
tions, i.e., gametophyte (sexual phase) alternating with sporophyte 
(asexual phase of development) in their life history, the two phases 
being combined in one plant. The female sexual cell is always 
lodged in an archegonium (a multicellular female sexual organ). 


Fig. 107. 


Fig. 108. 


Fig. 107. — Section of thallus of Cetraria islandica through an apothecium. as, 
Asci, three of which contain ascospores. gon, Gonidia. The inner (central por- 
tion shows the mycelial threads of a fungus entangling the alga. (Sayre.) 

Fig. 108. — A liverwort (Lunularia) . Below, portions of the thallus, showing 
the lunar-shaped cupules, with brood-buds, or gemmae. Above a single gemma, 
greatly magnified. (Gager.) 


SUBDIVISION I. — HEPATIC/E OR LIVERWORTS 


Plants of aquatic or terrestrial habit whose bodies consist of a 
rather flat, furchate branching thallus or leafy branch which is 
dorsoventral (having distinct upper and lower surface); the upper sur- 
face consists of several layers of cells containing chlorophyll, which 
gives the green color to the plants; the lower surface gives origin to 
hair-like outgrowths of the epidermal cells serving as absorptive parts 
and called rhizoids. Upon the dorsal surface of this thalloid body 


232 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


(the gametophyte) cup-like structures are produced called cupules 
which contain special reproductive bodies called gemma, these being 
able to develop into new gametophytes. The sex organs are of two 
kinds, male and female. The male organs are termed antheridia, 
the female, archegonia. The antheridia are more or less club-shaped, 
somewhat stalked organs consisting of an outer layer of sterile cells 
investing a mass of sperm mother-cells from which are formed the 
spirally curved biciliate antherozoids, or male sexual cells. The 
archegonia are flask-shaped organs consisting of an investing layer 
of sterile cells surrounding an axial row of cells, the neck-canal cells, 
ventral-canal cells and the egg or female sexual cell. Every cell of 
the axial row breaks down in the process of maturation with the 
exception of the egg which remains in the basal portion. Both 
antheridia and archegonia generally arise on special stalks above the 
dorsal surface. After the egg is fertilized by an antherozoid, the 
young embryo resulting grows into a sporogonium (the sporophyte) 
consisting of a stalk portion partly imbedded in the archegonium 
surmounting a sporangium or capsule in which spores are produced. 
When mature the capsule splits open discharging the spores. The 
spores on germination develop into a protonema or filamentous 
outgrowth which later develops the thallus. 

Order i. Marchantiales, including Marchantia and Riccia. 

Order 2. Jungermaniales, the leafy liverworts, including Porella. 

Order 3. Anthocerotales, having the most complex sporophyte 
generations among liverworts, including Anthoceros, and Megaceros. 


SUBDIVISION II.— MUSCI OR MOSSES 

Plants found on the ground, on rocks, trees and in running water. 
Their life histories consist of two generations, gametophyte and sporo- 
phyte similar to the liverworts but differ from liverworts, generally, 
by the ever-present differentiation of the gametophyte body into 
distinct stem and simple leaves, and the formation of the sexual 
organs at the end of an axis of a shoot. They are either monoecious, 
when both kinds of sexual organs are borne on the same plant, or 
dioecious, in which case the antheridia and archegonia arise on differ- 
ent plants. 


TAXONOMY 


233 


Order 1. — Sphagnales, or Bog Mosses, including the simple genus, 
Sphagnum. Pale mosses of swampy habit whose upper extremities 


Fig. 109. — Sphagnum aculifolium, Ehrb. A, prothallus (pr), with a young leafy 
branch just developing from it; B, portion of a leafy plant; a , male cones; ch, 
female branches; C, male branch or cone, enlarged with a portion of the vegetative 
branch adhering to its base; D, the same, with a portion of the leaves removed so 
as to disclose the antheridia; E, antheridium discharging spores; F, a single sperm; 
G, longitudinal section of a female branch, showing the archegonia (ar); H, 
longitudinal section through a sporogonium; sg 1 , the foot; ps, pseudopodium; c, 
calyptra; sg, sporogonium, with dome of sporogenous tissue; ar, old neck of the 
archegonium; J. Sphagnum squarrosum Pers.; d, operculum; c, remains of calyp- 
tra; qs, mature pseudopodium; ch, perichaetium. (Gager, from Schimper.) 

repeat their growth periodically while their lower portions die away 
gradually and form peat, hence their frequent name of Peat Mosses. 


234 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Order 2. — Andreaeales, including the single genus Andreaea, of 
xerophytic habit, occurring on siliceous rock. 

Order 3. — Bryales, or true mosses, comprising the most highly 


Fig. no. — Hair-cap moss ( Polytrichum commune). A, male plant; B, same, 
proliferating; C, female plant, bearing sporogonium; D, same; g, gametophyte; 5, 
seta; c, capsule; o, operculum; a, calpytra; E, top view of male plant. {Gager.) 


TAXONOMY 


235 


evolved type of bryophytes. Examples: Polytrichum , F unaria , 
Hypnum, and Mnium. 

Life History of Poly trichum Commune (A Typical True Moss). — 

Polytrichum commune is quite common in woods, forming a carpet- 
like covering on the ground beneath tall tree canopies. It is dioe- 
cious, the plants being of two kinds, male and female. 

Beginning with a spore which has fallen to the damp soil, we note its 
beginning of growth (germination) as a green filamentous body 
called a protonema. This protonema soon becomes branched, giving 


Fig. hi. — Protonemata of a moss bearing young gametophyte buds. (Gager.) 

rise to hair-like outgrowths from its lower portion called rhizoids 
and lateral buds above these which grow into leafy stems commonly 
known as “moss plants.” At the tips of some of these leafy stems 
antheridia (male sexual organs) are formed while on others arche- 
gonia (female sexual organs) are formed. These organs are sur- 
rounded at the tips by delicate hairy processes called paraphyses 
as well as leaves for protection. The antheridia bear the anthero- 
zoids, the archegonia, the eggs or ova, as in the liverworts. When 
an abundance of moisture is present the antherozoids are liberated 
from the antheridia, swim through the water to an archegonium 


2 3 6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


and descend the neck canal, one fertilizing the egg by uniting with 
it. This completes the sexual or gametophyte generation. The 
fertilized egg now undergoes division until an elongated stalk 
bearing upon its summit a capsule is finally produced, this being 
known as the sporogonium. The base of the stalk remains imbedded 
in the basal portion of the archegonium, at the tip of the leafy 
stalk, and forms a foot or absorbing process. In growing upward 
the sporogonium ruptures the neck of the archegonium and carries 
it upward as the covering of the capsule, or calyptra. The calyptra 
is thrown off before the spores are matured within the capsule. 
The upper part of the capsule becomes converted into a lid or oper- 
culum at the margin of which an annulus or ring of cells forms. The 
cells of the annulus are hygroscopic and expand at maturity, 
throwing off the lid and allowing the spores to escape. This com- 
pletes the asexual or sporophyte generation. The spores falling 
to the damp soil germinate into protonemata, thus completing 
the life cycle in which is seen an alteration of generations, the two 
phases, gametophyte alternating with sporophyte. 

DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA 

The most highly developed cryptogams showing a distinct alter- 
nation of generations in their life history. They differ from the 
Bryophytes in presenting independent, leafy, vascular, root-bearing 
sporophytes. 

SUBDIVISION I. — LYCOPODINE/E OR CLUB MOSSES 

Small perennial, vascular, dichotomously branched herbs with 
stems thickly covered with awl-shaped leaves. The earliest forms of 
vascular plants differing from ferns in being comparatively simple in 
structure, of small size, leaves sessile and usually possessing a single 
vein. Except in a few instances the sporangia are borne on leaves, 
crowded together and forming cones or spikes at the ends of the 
branches — Homosporous. 

Family I. Lycopodiaceae, including the single genus Lycopodium 
with widely distributed species. The spores of Lycopodium clava- 
tum are official. 


TAXONOMY 


237 


Family II. — Selaginellaceae, including the single genus Selaginella, 
with species for the greater part tropical. Plants similar in habit to 
the Lycopodiaceae but showing heterospory. 

Family III. — Isoetaceae, including the single genus Isoetes whose 
species are plants with short and tuberous stems giving rise to a tuft 
of branching roots below and a thick rosette of long, stiff awl-shaped 
leaves above — Heterosporous. 


Fig. 112. — Lycopodium clavatum. (Gager.) 

SUBDIVISION II.— EQUISETINEiE 
(The Horsetails or Scouring Rushes) 


The Equisetineae, commonly known as the Horsetails or Scouring 
rushes, are perennial plants with hollow, cylindrical, jointed and 
fluted stems, sheath-like whorls of united leaves and terminal cone- 
like fructifications. Their bodies contain large amounts of silicon, 
hence the name scouring rushes. 

In some varieties the fruiting cone is borne on the ordinary stem, in 


2 3 8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


others on a special stem of slightly different form. In the latter the 
spores are provided with elaters, which, being hygroscopic, coil and 
uncoil with increase or decrease in the amount of moisture present, 
thus aiding in the ejection of spores from the sporangia. The num- 
ber of species is small and included under one genus, Equisetum. 


Fig. i 13. — Selaginella Martensii. a, vegetative branch; 6, portion of the 
stem, bearing cones ( x ) ; c, longitudinal section of a cone, showing microsporangia 
(mic. sp.) in the axils of microsporophylls, and megasporangia in the axils of meg- 
asporophylls; d, microsporangium with microsporophyll; e, microspores; /, por- 
tion of wall of sporangium, greatly magnified; g, megaspore; h, microsporangium 
opened, and most of the microspores scattered; i, megasporangium, with mega- 
sporophyll; k, same, opened, showing the four megaspores. (Gager.') 


SUBDIVISION III.— FILICINE.E 

The group Filicineae is the largest among the vascular cryptogams 
and includes all the plants commonly known as Ferns. The main 
axis of a tvpical fern is a creeping underground stem or rhizome 


TAXONOMY 


239 


which at its various nodes bears rootlets below and fronds above. 
These fronds are highly developed, each being provided with a 
petiole-like portion called a stipe which is extended into a lamina 
usually showing a forked venation. Some ferns possess laminae 


Fig. 1 14 . — Equisetum arvense. P, sterile branch; P l , fertile branch with 
.strobilus, or cone; R, rhizome (underground); T, cross-section of cone, showing 
insertion of sporophylls in a whorl; N, N 1 , sporophylls with pendant sporangia; 
5, S l , S' 2 , spores with coiled elaters (el). (Gager.) 

which are lobed, each lobe being called a pinna. If a pinna be 
further divided, its divisions are called pinnules. The unfolding of a 
frond is circinate and it increases in length by apical growth. On 
the under surface of the laminae, pinnae, or pinnules may be seen 


240 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


small brown patches each of which is called a sorus, and usually 
covered by a membrane called the indusium. Each sorus consists 
of a number of sporangia (spore cases) developed from epidermal 
cells. In some ferns the entire leaf becomes a spore-bearing organ 
(sporophyll) . Most sporangia have a row of cells around the margin, 
the whole being called the annulus. Each cell of the annulus has a 
U-shaped thickened cell wall. Water is present within these cells 
and when it evaporates it pulls the cell walls together, straightening 
the ring and tearing open the weak side. The annulus then recoils 


Fig. i 15 . — Cyrlomium falcatum. Under (dorsal) surface of a portion of a 
sporophyll, showing the numerous sori on the pinnae. {Gager.) 


and hurls the spores out of the sporangium. Upon coming into con- 
tact with damp earth each spore germinates, producing a green sep- 
tate filament called a protonema. This later becomes a green heart- 
shaped body called a prothallus. It develops on its under surface 
antheridia or male organs and archegonia or female organs as well 
as numerous rhizoids. Within the antheridia are developed motile 
sperms , while ova are produced within the archegonia. The many 
ciliate sperms escape from the antheridia of one prothallus during a 
wet season, and, moving through the water, are drawn by a chemo- 
tactic influence to the archegonia of another prothallus, pass down 
the neck canals of these and fuse with the ova, fertilizing them. 
The fertilized egg or oospore divides and redivides and sson becomes 


TAXONOMY 


241 


differentiated into stem-bud, first leaf, root, and foot. The foot 
obtains nourishment from the prothallus until the root grows into 
the soil, when it atrophies, and the sporophyte becomes independent. 
Unequal growth and division of labor continue until a highly differ- 
entiated sporophyte results, the mature “fern plant.” 

ORDER 1. — FILIC ALES OR TRUE FERNS (HOMOSPOROUS) 

Family Polypodiaceoz. — Sporangia with annulus vertical and 
incomplete. 

The rhizomes and stipes of Dryopteris filix-mas and Dryopteris mar- 
ginalis are official in the U. S. P. The fibro-vascular bundles of 
these are concentric in type but differ from the concentric fibro- 
vascular bundles of some monocotyledons in that xylem is inner- 
most and phloem surrounds the xylem. 


ORDER 2.— HYDROPTERALES OR WATER FERNS 
(HETEROSPOROUS) 

Family Salviniacece. Floating ferns with broad floating leaves and 
submerged dissected leaves which bear sporocarps. Examples: Sal- 
vinia and Azolla. 

DIVSIOIN IV.— SPERMATOPHYTA (PHANEROGAMIA) 

Plants producing real flowers and seeds. The highest evolved 
division of the vegetable kingdom. 

SUBDIVISION I. — GYMNOSPERM/E — THE GYMNOSPERMS 

The Gymnosperms comprise an ancient and historic group of seed 
plants which were more numerous in the Triassic and Carboniferous 
periods than now. They differ from the Angiosperms in several 
respects, viz. : they bear naked ovules on the edges or flat surfaces 
of leaves called carpels, while Angiosperms bear covered ones; each 
megaspore produces within itself a bulky prothallus, in the upper 
portion of which originate one or more archegonia, while in Angio- 
16 


242 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


sperms no recognizable prothallus has been proven to exist; the 
stored food tissue within their seeds is prothallial tissue loaded with 
starch, etc., while that in Angiosperm seeds (endosperm) is developed 
Irom the endosperm nucleus; the mode of growth of their stems is 
always indefinite while that of Angiosperms is either indefinite or 
definite. 

The groups still extant are the Cycads or Fern Palms, the Gne- 
tums, the Ephedras, the Ginkgos and the Conifers. Of these the 
Conifers comprising over 300 species are the most numerous. Manv 
of them yield valuable products to pharmacy and the arts. 


Fig. 1 16. — Cyas revoluta, showing terminal bud of foliage-leaves just opening. 

(Gager.) 


The Conifers include the pines, spruces, hemlocks, cedars, firs, 
arbor vitse, chamaecyparis, and larches. All of their number are 
evergreen except the larches, which drop their foliage upon the 
advent of winter. 

I. Order Coniferales. — Trees with a single upright stem which 
develops side branches that spread out horizontally and taper to a 
point at the summit, giving the crown of the tree the appearance of 
a huge cone, rarely shrubs. 


TAXONOMY 


243 


Pinacece ( Conijerce ) or Pine Family . — Trees or shrubs with resin- 
ous juice whose wood is characterized by being composed largely of 
tracheids with bordered pits. Leaves entire, awl- or needle-shaped 
frequently fascicled, exstipulate, usually evergreen. Flowers, 
monoecious or rarely dioecious, achlamydeous, in cones. Staminate 
cone of a large number of microsporophylls (stamens) closely packed 
together and arranged spirally around a central axis, each stamen 
bearing usually two pollen sacs. Carpellate cone composed of 


Fig. 117. — Inflorescences of the pine. 1, Terminal twig; 2, ovulate cone; 3, 
staminate cone; 4, two-year-old cone. ( Hamaker .) 


spirally arranged scales, each of which bears a pair of naked ovules 
(megasori) near the base of its upper face, or, ovules springing from a 
cupuliform disc. Fruit a cone with woody or fleshy scales ( Pinus , 
Thuja, Abies, Picea, etc.), a galbalus ( Juniperus ) or a drupe composed 
of the thickened and fleshy disc surrounding an erect seed ( Taxus ). 
Seeds albuminous. Embryo with two or more cotyledons. 


244 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Terebinthina N.F. 

Resina 


Oleum Tere- 
binthinae 

PixLiquida 

Pinus Alba N.F. 

Oleum Pini Pumi- 
lionis 

Terebinthina 
Laricis N.F. 
Juniperus N.F. 

Oleum Juniperi 

Oleum Cadinum 
Thuja N.F. 

Oil of Cedarwood 

Unofficial drug 

Sabina 

Pix Burgundica 
Terebinthina 
Canadensis 
Sandaraca 

Dammar 

Succinum (Amber) 
Bordeaux 
Turpentine 
Pix Canadensis 
Oregon Balsam 


Spruce Gum 


Part used 

Concrete oleoresin 

Resin 


Volatile oil 


Product of de- 
structive distilla- 
tion 

Inner bark 
Volatile oil 
Oleoresin 
Fruit 

Volatile oil 

Empyreumatic oil 
Leafy young twigs 

Oil from wood 
Tops 

Resinous exudate 
Liquid oleoresin 

Resinous exudate 

Resinous exudate 

Fossil resin 
Concrete oleoresin 

Oleoresin 

Oleoresin 


Gum 


Botanical origin 

Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus palustris 
and other species 
of Pinus 
Pinus Strobus 

Pinus montana 


Juniperus Sabina 
Abies excelsa 
Abies balsamea 

Callitris 
quadrivalvis 
Agathis 
loranthifolia 
Pinites succinifer 
Pinus maritima 

Tsuga canadensis 
Pseudotsuga 
mucronata 

Picea canadensis 
Picea mariana 
Picea rubra 


Habitat 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

United States and 
Canada 
Tyrolese Alps 


Europe 

Europe and Asia 
Northern United 
States and Canada 
Africa 


Basin of Baltic 
France 

North America 
Western United 
States and 
British Columbia 

1 Canada and New 
f England 


Larix europaea Alps and 

Carpathians 

Juniperus 

communis I North America, 

Juniperus i Europe and Asia 

communis J 

Juniperus Oxycedrus 
Thuja occidentalis United States and 
Canada 

Juniperus North America 

Virginiana 


TAXONOMY 


245 


SUBDIVISION II. — ANGIOSPERM42 OR ANGIOSPERMS 
(Plants with covered seeds) 

Class A. — Monocotyledone^e 

A class of Angiosperms characterized by the following peculi- 
arities: 


Fig. 118. — Morphology of the typical monocotyledonous plant. A, leaf, 
parallel- veined; B, portion of stem, showing irregular distribution of vascular 
bundles; C, ground plan of flower (the parts in 3’s) ; D, top view of flower; E, seed, 
showing monocotyledonous embryo. (Gager.) 

One cotyledon or seed leaf in the embryo. 

Stems endogenous with closed collateral or concentric fibro-vascu- 
lar bundles, which are scattered. 

Leaves generally parallel veined. 


246 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 1 1 9. — Wheat plant showing the general habit of grasses. 


(Robbins.) 


TAXONOMY 


247 


Flowers trimerous (having the parts of each whorl in threes or 
multiple thereof). 

Secondary growth in roots generally absent. 

Medullary rays generally absent. 


I. Order Graminales. — Graminacece or Grass Family . — Mostly 
herbs with cylindric, hollow jointed stems whose nodes are swollen. 
The leaves are alternate, with long split sheaths and a ligule. 


Fig. 120. — Pistillate and staminate inflorescences of corn (Zea mays). 

(Robbins.) 


248 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Flowers generally hermaphroditic and borne in spikelets making 
up a spicate inflorescence. Lowest floral leaves of each spilelet are 
called glumes, which are empty and paired. Fruit, a caryopsis or 
grain. Embryo with scutellum. Seeds, albuminous. Seed coat 
fused with fruit coat to form one layer. 


Official drug 

Triticum 

Saccharum 


Maltum 


Amylum 
Zea N.F. 


Part used 

Rhizome and roots 
Refined sugar 


Seed, partially 
germinated and 
dried 
Starch 

Styles and stigmas 


Botanical name 

Agropyron repens 
Saccharum 
officinarum 
Beta vulgaris var. 
Rapa 

and Sorghum sp.? 
Hordeum sativum 


Zea Mays 
Zea Mays 


Habitat 

Europe and Asia 
Tropics 

Germany 

Asia and Africa 
Asia 


Mexico 

Mexico 


II. Order Principes. — Palmacece or Palm Family . — Tropical or sub- 
tropical shrubs, rarely trees, having unbranched trunks which are 
terminated by a crown of leaves, in the axils of which the flowers are 
produced. The leaves are well developed with pinnate or palmate 
blades and a fibrous sheathed clasping petiole. Inflorescence, a 
lateral spathe with small regular flowers. Fruit, either a nut, with 
leathery epicarp, fibrous or cellular mesocarp and thin membranous 
endocarp, or a drupe (Cocoanut) with leathery epicarp, broadly 
fibrous mesocarp and stony endocarp, or a berry as in the Date 
Palm, Phoenix, with membranous epicarp, succulent mesocarp 
and soft succulent endocarp. Seeds, solitary. 


Official drug 

Sabal 

Unofficial 

Dragon’s Blood 
Cocoanut oil 
Carnauba wax 
Areca nut 


Part used 

Fruit (drupe) 

Inspissated juice 
Fixed oil 
Wax from leaves 
Seed 

Fixed oil 


Botanical name 

Serenoa serrulata 


Calamus Draco 
Cocos nucifera 
Copernicia cerifera 
Areca Catechu 

Elaeis guineensis 


Habitat 

South Carolina to 
Florida 

East Indies 
T ropics 
Brazil 

Asia and East 
Indies I 
West Africa 


Palm oil 


TAXONOMY 


249 


Fig. 12 1. — Sabal palmetto. This palm, which appears in the center of the 
figure, yields the official drug, sabal. In the right distance a barragona palm. 
Cuba. (Gager.) 


III. Order Arales. — Aracecc or Arum Family . — Perennial herbs 
with fleshy rhizomes or corms, and long petioled leaves, containing an 
acrid or pungent juice. Flowers crowded on a spadix, which is usu- 
ally surrounded by a spathe. Fruit a berry. Seeds with large 
fleshy embryo. 


Unofficial drug 

Calamus 
Skunk cabbage 
Indian turnip 


Part used 

Unpeeled rhizome 

Rhizome 

Corm 


Botanical 

name 

Acorus calamus 

Symplocarpus 

foetidus 

Arisaema 

triphyllum 


Habitat 

Europe, Asia, 
North America 
North America 

North America 


IV. Order Liliales. — Liliacece or Lily Family . — Herbs (Lilum), 
shrubs (Yucca), or trees ( Dracena Draco), with regular and sym- 


2 50 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


metrical almost always six-androus flowers. Stem either short 
creeping underground ( Polygonatum ) or swelling up and forming 
bulbs (Hyacinth), or corms ( Colchicum ), or stem may elongate above 
ground and become wiry and herbaceous or semi-shrubby as Smilax, 


Fig. ( i22 . — Acorus calamus. (Sayre.) 


or the stem may remain short giving rise to thick fleshy and sap- 
storing leaves as in Aloe. Leaves linear to lanceolate, ovate, rarely 
wider, divisible into sheathing base, narrow petiole and expanded 
blade. Venation, parallel becoming in some ovate leaves parallel 


TAXONOMY 


251 


with oblique connections, reticulate or highly reticulate as in Smilax, 
etc. The perianth is parted into six segments, the calyx and corolla 
being alike in color. Anthers introrse. Ovary three-locular with a 


Fig. 123. — Diagram of A, lily flower, and B, grass flower, showing homologous 
structures. A, f, bract; ajc, axis; op, outer perianth; ip, inner perianth; s, sta- 
mens; ( c ) tricarpellary ovary. B, shaded structures are aborted; le, lemma 
(bract); ax, axis; p and p' , palet (outer perianth); l and V , lodicules (inner peri- 
anth); s and s', two whorls of stamens; c, tricarpellary ovary. (A, Robbins. B, 
after Shuster.) 

single style. Fruit a three-locular, loculicidally dehiscent capsule 
(. Lilium , etc.) or rarely a berry ( Asparagus , etc.). Seeds usually 
numerous, albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 


Sarsaparilla 


Root 


Smilax medica 
Smilax ornata 
Smilax officinalis 


Mexico 
Costa Rica 
Guatemala, 
Honduras and 
Nicaragua 
United States 
Mediterranean 
Basin 


Veratrum 
Colchici Cormus 


Rhizome and roots Veratrum viride 


Corm 


Colchicum 

autumnale 


252 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Colchici Semen 


Aloe 


Scilla 

Veratrina 

Convallariae Radix 
N.F. 

Convallariae 
Flores N.F. 
Trillium N.F. 
Allium N.F. 

Aletris N.F. 

Helonias N.F. 


Part used 

Seed 


Inspissated juice 
of leaves 

Bulb 

Mixture of 
alkaloids 

Rhizome and roots 

Inflorescence 

Rhizome and roots 
Bulb (fresh) 

Rhizome and roots 

Rhizome and roots 


Botanical name 

Colchicum 
autumnale 
f Aloe vera 
Aloe Perryi 

Aloe ferox 
Urginea maritima 

Asagrsea officinalis 

Convallaria 

majalis 

J 

Trillium erectum 
Allium sativum 

Aletris farinosa 

Chamrelirium 

luteum 


Habitat 

Mediterranean 

Basin 

Dutch West Indies 
Socotra and East 
Africa 

South Africa 
Mediterranean 
Basin 

Mexico and 
Central America 

j Europe, Asia, 

\ United States 

North America 
Europe, Asia, 
North America 
Eastern United 
States 

Eastern United 
States 


Dioscoreacea or Yam Family . — Herbs or shrubs with twining stems 
arising from large tuberous roots or knotted rootstocks. Leaves 
ribbed and netted-veined. Flowers small, dioecious, regular, 
having a six-cleft calyx-like perianth, six stamens and a three- 
celled ovary. Fruit usually a membranous three-angled or winged 
capsule. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Dioscorea Rhizome Dioscorea villosa United States 


Iridacecs or Iris Family . — Perennial herbs with equitant two- 
ranked leaves and regular or irregular flowers which are showy. 
Fruit a three-celled, loculicidal, many-seeded capsule. Rootstocks, 
tubers, or corms mostly acrid. 


Official drug 

Iris N.F. 

Iris Versicolor 
N.F. 

Crocus N.F. 


Part used 

Peeled rhizome 

Rhizome 

Stigmas 


Botanical name 

f Iris florentina 
j Iris pallida 
1 Iris germanica 
Iris versicolor 

Crocus sativus 


Habitat 

| Europe 

Eastern United 
States 

Mediterranean 

Basin 


TAXONOMY 


253 


V. Order Scitiminales. — Zingiberacecs or Ginger Family. — Trop- 
ical plants, perennial herbs, with fleshy rhizomes and large elliptical 


pinnately-veined leaves. The leaf sheaths are folded tightly around 
each other so as to give the appearance of a stem. Flowers, very 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


2 54 

irregular, trimerous; sepals three short, often green; petals three, 
elongate, often fused below; stamens three to four abortive, petaloid, 
one often absent, a sixth alone fertile and stamen-like. The petaloid 


Fig. 125. — Zingiber officinale. (Sayre.) 


stamens constitute the most attractive parts of the flower. Pistil, 
inferior, tricarpellary. Fruit, a capsule. Seeds, albuminous with 
both perispermic and endospermic albumen. 


TAXONOMY 


255 


Official drug 

Zingiber 

Cardamomi 

Semen 

Galanga N.F. 

Zedoaria N.F. 

Unofficial drug 

Curcuma 


Part used 

Rhizome 

Seeds 

Rhizome 

Rhizome 


Botanical name Habitat 

Zingiber officinale Asia 
Elettaria Indo-China 

Cardamomum 
Alpinia Asia 

officinarum 

Curcuma Zedoaria Asia, Madagascar 


Prepared rhizome 


Curcuma longa 


South Asia 


Fig. 126. — Floral organs of an orchid ( CaUleya sp.). A, the entire flower; sep, 
sepal; pet, petal; B, column, showing s, stigma and r, the rostellum (beak), with 
the small glands at the tip; to the glands are attached the four strap-shaped 
caudicles of the pollinia; C, pollinia, with the four caudicles; below, the gland; D, 
longitudinal section of the column; p, pollinium; E, the same, enlarged. (Gager.) 


256 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


VI. Order Orchidales. — Orchidacetz or Orchid Family . — Perennial 
herbs of terrestrial or terrestrial saprophytic or epiphytic growth, 
having grotesque flowers. Roots fibrous or tuberous often sapro- 
phytic in relation, or aerial and with velamen. Stems and branches 
upright, in epiphytic types often forming pseudobulbs. Leaves 
alternate, entire, parallel-veined, sheathing at base, rarely reduced 
to yellowish or pale scales in saprophytes. Flowers irregular, usu- 
ally attractive, entomophilous, arranged in elongated spikes or 
racemes, trimerous. Sepals, three usually similar; petals three of 


Fig. 127. — Flower of an orchid ( Catlleya sp.). (Gager.) 


which two often resemble sepals, third is variously, often greatly 
modified and fused with two outer petaloid stamens as a labellum 
or lighting-board for insects. Third stamen of outer whorl fertile 
(Orchidece) or a barren knob ( Cypripedice ); pollen of fertile anther ag- 
glutinate as pollinia. Three stamens of inner circle barren and 
petaloid or one absent ( Cypripedice ). Stamens all epigynous and 
often three are fused with the style as gynandrium. Carpels three, 
syncarpous, with inferior, three rarely four, one (usually)-celled ovary. 
Fruit a capsule, three-valved and one-celled. Seeds minute, 
abundant and wind disseminated. 


TAXONOMY 


257 


Official drug 
Vanilla N.F. 


Part used 
Fruit 


Cypripedium N.F. Rhizome and roots 


Botanical name Habitat 

Vanilla planifolia Mexico 
Cypripedium 
hirsutum 
Cypripedium 
parviflorum 


1- United States 


Plants having the following characteristics: 
Two-seed leaves (cotyledons) in embryo. 
Netted-veined leaves. 


17 


258 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Stems, and roots of secondary growth with open collateral fibro- 
vascular bundles, radially arranged about pith. 

Exogenous stems. 

Medullary rays present. 

Cambium. 

Roots developing secondary structure. 

Flowers tetra- or pentamerous (parts of each whorl, four or five or 
multiple thereof). 


Fig. 129.— Morphology of a typical dicotyledonous plant. A, leaf, pinnately- 
netted veined; B, portion of stem, showing concentric layers of wood; C, ground- 
plan of flower (the parts in s’s) ; D, perspective of flower; E, longitudinal section 
of seed, showing dicotyledonous embryo. (Gager.) 


Sub-class a. — Archichlamyde.e 

Those dicotyledonous plants in which the petals are distinct and 
separate from one another or are entirely wanting. That group of 


TAXONOMY 


2 59 

the Archichlamydeae whose flowers show the absence of petals and 
frequently of sepals is called the Apetalae. The group whose plants 
have flowers showing the parts of their corolla (petals) separate and 
distinct is called the Choripetalae. 


Fig. 130 . — Piper cubeba — Fruiting branch and fruit (enlarged). (Sayre.) 

I. Order Piperales. — Piperacece or Pepper Family . — A family of 
aromatic herbs and shrubs with jointed stems, opposite, verticillate, 
or sometimes alternate leaves without stipules, and spiked incon- 
spicuous, wind-pollinated flowers. The characteristic fruit is a berry 


26 o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


enclosing a single upright seed with abundant perisperm (from 
megasporangial tissue) and reduced endosperm (from matured 
embryo sac). 


Official drug 

Cubeba 

Piper 

Kava N.F. 
Matico N.F. 


Part used 

Unripe fruit 

Unripe fruit 

Rhizome and roots 
Leaves 


Botanical name Habitat 

Piper Cubeba Borneo, Java, 

Sumatra 

Piper nigrum Cochin-China, 

India 

Piper methysticum South Sea Islands 
Piper angustifolium Peru, Bolivia 


Fig. 131. — Willow ( Salix ). Leafy branch, bearing two pistillate catkins. 
Staminate flower above, at the left; pistillate flower below, at the right. (Gager, 
after Britton and Brown.) 


II. Order Salicales. — Salicacece or Willow Family . — Shrubs or 
trees of temperate or cold regions, with upright woody stems. Bark 
often containing bitter principles (Salicin etc.). 

Leaves alternate, simple, entire, stipulate; stipules rarely green, 
persistent, usually functioning as winter bud-scales and falling in 
spring. 


TAXONOMY 


261 


Inflorescences dioecious spikes, so on separate plants. Staminate 
spikes forming deciduous catkins of yellowish flowers, pistillate 
as persistent spikes of green flowers, at length maturing fruit. 

Flowers of catkins numerous, each of two to five (Willow) or 
six to fifteen (Poplar) stamens in axil of a small bract leaf, sometimes 
with small nectar knob or girdle at base; pollen abundant, hence 
plants anemophilous, rarely entomophilous. Pistillate flowers 
green, each of a bicarpellate pistil in axil of bract, ovary one-celled 
with parietal placentation, style simple, stigma bilobed. 

Fruit a capsule dehiscing longitudinally. Seeds small, exal- 
buminous, surrounded by a tuft of hairs for dissemination. 

Botanical name Habitat 

Several species of Europe, North 
Salix and Populus America 
Salix alba Europe 

Populus nigra 

Populus \ North America 

balsamifera 

III. Order Myricales. — Myricacece or Bayberry Family. — Dioe- 
cious or sometimes monoecious, aromatic shrubs or trees with watery 
juice and possessing underground branches which arch downward 
then upward producing many suckers. Roots fibrous and bearing 
many short rootlets upon which are frequently found coralloid 
clusters of tubercles containing the Actinomyces Myricarum Young- 
ken. Leaves alternate, revolute in vernation, serrate, irregularly 
dentate, lobed or entire, rarely pinnatifid, pinnately and reticulately 
veined, pellucid punctate, evergreen or deciduous, generally 
exstipulate, rarely stipulate. Flowers naked, unisexual, monoecious 
or dioecious, in the axils of unisexual or androgynous aments from 
scaly buds formed in the summer in the axils of the leaves of the 
year, remaining covered during the winter and opening in March or 
April before or with the unfolding of the leaves of the year. 

Staminate flowers in elongated catkins, each consisting of two to 
eight stamens inserted on the torus-like base of the oval to oval- 
lanceolate bracts of the catkin, usually subtended by two or four 
or rarely by numerous bracteoles; filaments short or elongated, 


Official drug 

Salicin 

Salix 

Populi Gemma; 
N.F. 


Part used 

Glucoside 

Bark 

Closed leaf buds 


262 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


filiform, free or connate at the base into a short stipe; anthers ovoid, 
erect, two-celled, extrorse, showing longitudinal dehiscence. 
Pistillate flowers in ovoid or ovoid-globular catkins. Gynaecium 
of two united carpels on a bract. Ovary sessile, unicellular, sub- 


Fig. 132. — Two Myrica cerifera trees growing in a field near a brackish swamp 
at Rio Grande, N. J. Photographed by author July 26, 1914. 

tended by two lateral bracteoles which persist under the fruit, or 
by eight linear subulate bracteoles, accrescent, and forming a lacini- 
ate involucre inclosing the fruit; styles short and dividing into 
two elongated style arms which bear stigmatic surfaces on their 
inner face; ovule orthotropous, solitary with a basilar placenta and 


TAXONOMY 


263 


superior micropyle. Fruit an akene or ceriferous nut. Pericarp 
covered with glandular emergences which secrete wax or fleshy 
emergences, smooth and lustrous or smooth, glandular. Seed 


Fig. 133. — Fructiferous branches of Myrica Caroliniensis (to left) and Myrica 
cerifera (to right) as they appear in early winter. The former species is deciduous, 
while the latter is evergreen. Collected by author at Wildwood, N. J., Dec. 16, 
1914. 

erect, exalbuminous, covered with a thin testa. Embryo straight, 
cotyledons thick, plano-convex; radicle short, superior. 

There are two distinct genera of this family, e.g., Myrica and 
Comptonia, 


264 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used 

Myrica N.F. Bark of root 


Botanical name Habitat 

Myrica cerifera Eastern United 
States 


Fig. 134. — Fructiferous branch of Myrica Gale, showing mature pistillate 
catkins and nature of leaves. Collected at the south end of Peak's Island in 
Casco Bay, Maine, September, 1913. 

IV. Order Juglandales.- — Juglandace^e. — A family of apetalous 
exogenous trees — the walnut family — with alternate odd-pinnate 
leaves and monoecious flowers, the sterile in catkins, the fertile 
solitary or in a small cluster or spike. The fruit is a dry drupe with 


TAXONOMY 


265 


a bony nut-shell and a four-lobed seed. It embraces five genera, 
of which Carya (Hicoria) and Juglans are represented in the United 
States, and about 35 species. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Juglans N. F. Inner root bark Juglans cinerea United States 

Betulacecz or Birch Family. — A family of aromatic trees or shrubs 
distinguished by monoecious flowers with scaly bracts and astringent 
resinous bark. Differs from Fagacece by superior ovary and absence 
of cupule. To this family belong the hazelnuts, birches, alders, the 
ironwood, and the hornbean. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

(Oleum Betulae) Volatile oil Betula lenta North America 

Methylis salicylas 


V. Order Fagales. — Fagacece or Beech Family ( Cupuliferce ). — 
Apetalous trees or shrubs having alternate pinnately-veined leaves, 
monoecious flowers, the male in drooping aments, the female solitary, 
clustered, or in scaly catkins. Fruit a one-celled one-seeded nut. 
The beech, oak and chestnut are the principal genera. 


Official drug 

Galla 

Castanea N.F. 
Quercus N.F. 


Part used 

Excrescence 

Leaves 

Bark 


Botanical name Habitat 

Quercus infectoria Europe 
Castanea dentata North America 

Quercus alba North America 


The cork of commerce is obtained from the bark of Quercus Suber 
and Quercus occidentalism plants indigenous to Spain and France. 

VI. Order Urticales. — Ulmacece or Elm Family. — Forest trees 
indigenous to the temperate and tropical zones, characterized by 
being woody plants, with pinnately veined leaves and caducous 
stipules and without milky juice. Their flowers are unisexual or 
hermaphroditic with six or four parts to the perianth. Fruit a 
samara. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Ulmus Inner bark Ulmus fulva United States 

and Canada 


266 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Moracece or Mulberry Family . — Mostly shrubs or trees, rarely 
herbs, perennials, many of them containing a- milky [juice, with 


Fig. 135 . — Quercus infectoria — Branch and nutgall. (Sayre.) 

small axillary, clustered or solitary unisexual flowers, variously 
colored; leaves ovate with serrate margin and having caducous 
stipules; fruit an akene enclosed by the perianth. 


TAXONOMY 


267 


Official drug 

Cannabis 

Ficus N.F. 
Humulus 
Lupulinum N.F. 


Part used 

Flowering tops of 
pistillate plant 

Fruit 

Strobile^ 

Glandular trichome 


Botanical name 

Cannabis sativa 
Cannabis sativa 
var. indica 
Ficus Carica 
Humulus lupulus 
Humulus lupulus 


Habitat 

| Asia 
Persia 

I Europe, Asia, 

( North America 


Fig. 136. — -Hop (Humulus lupulus). A, portion of plant showing pistillate 
inflorescences; B, staminate inflorescence; C, rachis of pistillate inflorescence 
("hop”). (Robbins.) 


268 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


VII. Order Santalales. — Santa! acece or Sandalwood Family . — 
Herbs, shrubs or trees having entire exstipulate leaves, greenish 
flowers and oily seeds. Many are parasitic on the roots of other 
plants. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Oleum Santali Volatile oil ) _ , „ f India and East 

Santalum Album N.F. Heartwood ) Santalum album j ^ 


VIII. Order Aristolochiales.^.4 ristolochiacece. or Birthwort Family. 
— Herbs or twining semi-woody or woody plants, having more or less 
swollen nodes from which spring cordate or reniform or ovate leaves. 
Flowers regular ( Asarum , etc.) or irregular ( Aristolochia ) often 


TAXONOMY 269 

offensively smelling. Fruit a capsule. Seeds with copious albu- 


men and minute embryo. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

f Aristolochia 

Habitat 

Serpentaria 

Rhizome and roots 

1 Serpentaria 

I Aristolochia 

\ United States 


1 reticulata 


Asarum N.F. 

Rhizome and roots 

Asarum canadensis 

United States 


Pig. 138. — Serpentaria — -Cross-section of rhizome. (25 diam.) A, parenchyma 
of cortex; B, Medullary ray; C, xylem; D, phloem; E, medulla. (Sayre.) 

IX. Order Polygonales. — Polygonacece Family . — Usually herbs 
(Polygonum, Rumex, etc.) rarely trees (Coccoloba uvifera and C. 
platyclada) or shrubs (Muhlenbeckia, Brunnichia) having strong 
vertical tap roots and spreading secondary roots more or less pro- 
vided with tannin compounds. Stems elongate, green, to woody, 
rarely flattened, leathery, phylloidal (Muhlenbeckia platyclada) still 
more rarely tendriliform (Antigonum leptopus). Leaves alternate 
rarely opposite or whorled (Eriogonum), entire, rarely lobed (Rheum 
palmatum, Rumex acetosella), petiolate, rarely sessile, and stipu- 
late. Stipules fused and forming a greenish membranous upgrowth 
(■ ocrea ) which sheathes the stem. Inflorescence racemose with 
many dense scorpoid or helicoid cymes, which in some forms 
condense into single flowers. Flowers regular, pentamerous, 
with simple calyx becoming trimerous with two whorls of three 


270 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


sepals each. Stamens varying from fifteen or twelve to nine or six 
more rarely to five, four, three to one (Koenigia), hypogynous, more 
rarely by enlargement of receptacle and slight fusion of sepals, 
perigynous. Pistil tri- to bicarpellate often three- to two-sided, 
ovary one-celled with one ovule. Styles three, rarely two, radiating 
penicillate in wind-pollinated inconspicuous flowers becoming con- 
densed knob-like in conspicuous insect-pollinated flowers. Fruit a 
triangular or biconvex akene often crowned by persistent styles and 
surrounded by persistent closely applied sepals. Seeds solitary, 
albuminous, with straight embryo, or in Rumex, curved embryo. 


Fig. 139. — Rhubarb (Rheum) flower, external view, median lengthwise section, 
and with perianth and stamens removed. (Robbins, after Liirssen.) 


Official drug 


Rheum 


Rumex N.F. 

£ Unofficial 

Bistorta 


Part used 


Rhizome 


Root 


Rhizome 


Botanical name 

Rheum officinale 

Rheum palmatum 
and the variety 
tanguticum and 
probably other 
species 

Rumex crispus 
■ Rumex 
obtusifolius 

Polygonum 

Bistorta 


Habitat 

China 

and 

Thibet 


Europe 

Europe and Asia 


X. Order Chenopodiales ( Centrospernue ).- — Chenopodiacece or 
Goosejoot Family . — Usually herbaceous halophytes or shore growers, 


TAXONOMY 


271 


growing also in any alkaline soil, more rarely shrubs (A triplex) or 
low trees ( Haloxylon ). 

Among them are several garden vegetables ( Spinach , Beets, 
Mangels) and a number of weeds. Leaves alternate to opposite 


Fig. 140 . — Phytolacca decandra (in foreground), growing in damp woodland. 

sometimes reduced to teeth, entire or lobed. Inflorescence spikes 
or short racemes of condensed cymes. Flowers regular, usually 
small and greenish. They are either perfect {Beta), monoecious 
{Cheno podium), dioecious {Atriplex sp.), or polygamous ( Kochia ) 
Fruit a utricle. Seed albuminous. 


272 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part 1 

Oleum Chenopodii Volatile oil 


Part used 


Botanical name Habitat 

Chenopodium United States 

anthelminticum 
Beta vulgaris Europe 


Saccharum Refined sugar 


Unofficial 

Chenopodium Fruit 


Chenopodium United States 
anthelminticum 


Phytolaccaceoz. — A family of apetalous trees, shrubs, or woody 
herbs — the pokeweed family — with alternate entire leaves, and 
flowers resembling those of the goosefoot family (Chenopodiacece), 
but differing in having the several-celled ovary composed of carpels 
united in a ring, and forming a berry in fruit. It embraces 21 genera, 
and 55 species, tropical and sub-tropical. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Phytolacca N.F. Root Phytolacca North America 


decandra 


XI. Order Ranales. — Magnoliacece or Magnolia Family. — Trees 
and shrubs having alternate leaves and single large flowers with 
calyx and corolla colored alike. Sepals and petals deciduous, an- 
thers adnate. Carpels and stamens numerous. Bark aromatic 
and bitter. Fruit a collection of follicles dehiscing dorsally. 

Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Oleum anisi Volatile oil Illicium verum South China 


Unofficial 

Winter’s Bark Bark 


Drimys Winteri South America 


Ranunculacece or Buttercup Family. — Herbs, rarely shrubs ( Clema- 
tis ) with acrid, poisonous, watery juices and with alternate, rarely 
opposite, simple, rarely compound, exstipulate leaves. Flowers 
pentamerous, regular to irregular, incomplete to complete, apose- 
palous and apopetalous. Sepals five — rarely more or less — green 
to petaloid, regular, passing to irregular (Larkspur, Monkshood). 
Petals none of five, regular to rarely irregular, often nectariferous 
and with nectariferous petals often variously transformed. Sta- 
mens indefinite, hypogynous. Pistil of many to few apocarpous 
carpels, each carpel with one to several ovules. Fruit a collection of 


TAXONOMY 


27 3 


achenes ( Ranunculus , Anemonella), or a collection of follicles 
(Columbine, Larkspur, Peony) or rarely a berry as in Baneberry 
( Aclcea ). Seeds albuminous. 


Fig. 141. — Above ground portion of Aconitum showing palmately-divided 
leaves and hooded flowers. 


Official drug 

Hydrastis 


Aconitum 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Rhizome and roots Hydrastis canadensis Eastern United 

States and 
Canada 

Tuberous root Aconitum Europe, Asia, 

Napellus Western North 

America 


274 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 142 . — Cimicifuga racemosa — Plant and rhizome. Note the pinnately de- 
compound leaf and the wand-like racemes which bear white flowers. {Sayre.) 


TAXONOMY 


275 


Official drug 

Staphisagria 

Cimicifuga 

Pulsatilla N.F. 

Coptis N.F. 
Adonis N.F. 

Delphinium N.F. 

Unofficial 

Aconiti Folia 

Helleborus 


Part used 

Seed 

Rhizome and root 

Entire herb 

Entire herb 
Entire herb 

Seeds 


Botanical name 

Delphinium 
Staphisagria 
Cimicifuga 
racemosa 
[ Anemone 
Pulsatilla 
\ Anemone 
| Ludoviciana 
l Anemone pratensis 
Coptis trifolia 

Adonis vernalis 
[ Delphinium 
I Consolida 
j Delphinium 
I , Ajacis 


Habitat 

South Europe, 
Asia Minor 
North America, 
Europe, Asia 

■ Europe 

United States and 

Canada 

Europe 

Europe 


Leaves and flower 
tops 

Rhizome and roots 


Aconitum 

Napellus 

Helleborus niger 


Europe, Asia, 
western North 
America 
Alps 


Berberidacece or Barberry Family . — Herbs and woody plants with 
watery juices and alternate, or radical, simple or compound leaves 
often bearing spines or barbs, which give them a barbed appearance. 
Fruit a berry or capsule. 


Official drug 

Berberis N.F. 

Podophyllum 

Caulophyllum 

N.F. 


Part used 

Rhizome and roots 

Rhizome and roots 
Rhizome and roots 


Botanical name 

Berberis species of 
the Sect. 
Odostemon 
Podophyllum 
peltatum 
Caulophyllum 
thalictroides 


Habitat 

Western North 
America 

Eastern North 
America 
Eastern United 
States 


Menispermacece, or Moonseed Family . — Choripetalous woody, 
climbing, tropical plants with alternate, exstipulate, simple often 
peltate leaves. Flowers green to white. Fruit a one-seeded succulent 
drupe. Seeds albuminous. They usually contain tonic, narcotic 
or poisonous bitter principles. 


276 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 143. — Podophyllum peltatum. Entire plant, above ground portion, and 
fruit. Note the flowering stems bearing in each instance two one-sided leaves 
and a nodding flower from the fork. This plant also sends up from its rhizome 
flowerless stems each of which terminates in a 7-9 lobed peltate leaf. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Calumba 

Root 

Jateorhiza 

palmata 

East Africa 

Pareira N.F. 

Root 

Chondodendron 

tomentosum 

Peru and Brazil 

Cocculus N.F. 

Unofficial 

Fruit 

Anamirta cocculus 

Asia 

Menispermum 

Rhizome and roots 

Menispermum 

canadense 

United States and 
Canada 


TAXONOMY 


277 


Myristicacece. or Nutmeg Family . — An order of apetalous trees 
comprising the single genus Myristica, of about 80 species. 

Myristica . — A large tropical genus of fragrant, apetalous trees — • 
the nulmegs — coextensive with the nutmeg family, having alternate, 


Fig. 144 . — Jateorhiza palmala — Portion of vine. Note tendril for winding 
about a support as this plant climbs. (Sayre.) 


entire, often punctate leaves, small dioecious regular flowers, and a 
succulent, two-valved, one-celled fruit with a solitary seed, usually 
covered by a fleshy arillus. 

M. fragrans, a handsome tree, 20 to 30 feet high, of the Malay 
archipelago, supplies the nutmegs and mace of commerce. 


278 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Myristica 
Oleum Myristica 
Macis N.F. 


Part used 

Kernel of seed 
Volatile oil 
Arillode 


Botanical name Habitat 

Myristica fragrans ] 

Myristica fragrans }■ Mollucajlslands 
Myristica fragrans J 


Fig. 145 . — Myristica fragens — Branch and fruit. 


(Sayre.) 


Lauraceoz or Spicebush Family . — Shrubs or trees of sub-tropical or 
tropical, rarely of temperate regions. Bark, wood and leaves rich 
in spicy aromatic hydrocarbon oils. Leaves alternate, simple, 
entire, often leathery shining. Inflorescences usually cymose clus- 


TAXONOMY 


279 


ters. Flowers small, green, yellow or rarely whitish, hermaphrodite 
or more or less dioecious, regular calyx alone present as a floral whorl, 
of three to six small sepals. Stamens four to twelve in several rows 
of three to four each; anthers opening by recurved valves (valvular 


dehiscence). Pistil monocarpellary, ovary superior one-celled with 
solitary pendulous ovule, style simple with usually rounded stigma. 
Fruit a succulent berry (Spicebush and “Bacca laurea”) or a suc- 
culent drupe (Sassafras). 


28 o 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Camphora 

Ketone 

Cinnamomum 

Camphora 

Eastern Asia 

Sassafras 

Bark of root 

Sassafras 

variifolium 

North America 

Sassafras Medulla 
N.F. 

Pith 

Sassafras 

variifolium 

North America 

Cinnamomum 

Zeylanicum 

Bark 

Cinnamomum 

Zeylanicum 

Ceylon 

Cinnamomum 

Saigonicum 

Bark 

Undetermined 
species of 
cinnamon 

China 

Oleum Cinnamomi 

Unofficial 

Volatile oil 

Cinnamomum 

cassia 

China 

Coto 

Bark 

Sp. undetermined 

Bolivia 

Laurus 

Leaves 

Laurus nobilis 

Europe 

North America 

Fagot cassia 

Bark 

Cinnamomum 

Burmanii 

Asia 

Clove Bark 

Bark 

Dicypellium 

caryophyllatum 

Brazil 

Cassia Buds 

Immature fruit 

Cinnamomum 

Loureirii 

China 


XII. Order Rhoeadales (Papaverales). — Papaveracece or Poppy 
Family. — Herbs or low shrubs. Root only, in some cases root and 
stem, and in still others the entire plant, traversed by anastomosing 
latex tubes that contain a milky juice varying from white ( Papaver ) 
or pale-yellow (C helidonium) to red ( Bloodroot ). Latex tubes wholly 
confined to cortex or phloem but occasionally sending branches into 
the medullary rays, rarely into the pith of the plant. Leaves alter- 
nate varying from simple ( Platystemon ) to pinnatifid, pinnatipartite 
or even pinnately compound. Inflorescence varying from a loose 
raceme or panicle of cymes to a raceme of cymes or condensing until, 
as in Papaver, only one large terminal flower is left. Flowers regular, 
tetramerous or dimerous. Sepals typically two more rarely three. 
Petals typically four, more rarely six. Stamens indefinite in most 
forms, hypogynous except in California Poppy ( Eschscholtzia ) where 
hypogyny is modified into perigyny. Pistil of sixteen to four, rarely 
two carnals generally fused together. Placenta parietal. Ovules 


TAXONOMY 


281 


numerous, anatropous. Fruit a capsule except in Platystemon 
which has follicles. Seeds richly albuminous. 


Fig. 147 . — Papaver Somntferum — Flowering branch and fruit. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 

Opium 

Sanguinaria 

Unofficial 

Chelidonium 

Maw seed 


Part used 

Air-dried milky 
exudate 

Rhizome and roots 


Entire flowering 
plant 
Seeds 


Botanical name 

Papaver somni- 
ferum and its 
var. album 

Sanguinaria 

canadensis 

Chelidonium 

majus 

Papaver somni- 
ferum album 


Habitat 

1 

| Eastern Mediter- 
I ranean countries 

United States and 
Canada 

United States and 
Canada 
vide supra 


282 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fumariacea or Fumitory Family . — Delicate herbs larely shrubs 
containing milky watery to watery latex. Leaves more or less 
compound. Inflorescence a raceme or spike. Flowers irregular, 
zygomorphic, one or both of the petals of which having a spur. Fruit 
a one-chambered capsule. Seeds albuminous. Idioblasts common. 


Fig. 148. — Transverse sec- 
tion of flower of Poppy. 
(Sayre.) 


Fig. 149. — Gynecium of 
Poppy, with one stamen 
remaining. (Sayre.) 


Fig. 150. — Trans- 
verse section of ovary 
of Poppy. (Sayre.) 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Tubers of Dicentra (Bicuculla) 
canadensis 

Bulbs of Dicentra Cucullaria 

Cruciferce or Mustard Family. — Herbs, rarely shrubs, mostly of 
temperate regions. Stem and branches upright or diffuse spreading 
(. Arabis ). Leaves alternate, simple rarely compound, exstipulate, 
entire or toothed, often more or less hairy. Inflorescence at first 
a corymb or shortened raceme, later elongating into a loose raceme. 
Bracts at base rarely reduced, usually absent. Flowers regular— 
rarely irregular (Candytuft) — tetramerous. Sepals four, green, 
equal or two laterals, at times pouched as nectar receptacles. Petals 
four, yellow to white or to pink or purple, cruciform, often divisible 
into claw and blade. Stamens six to four long anteroposterior, 
two short lateral and often with nectar knobs or discs, hence termed 
tetradynamous, insertion hypogynous. Pistil syncarpous bicar- 
pellate, superior, carpels lateral. Ovary one-celled but falsely 
two-celled by a placental replum, style simple, stigma rounded or 
bifid or bilobed. Ovules several, rarely few, attached to marginal 


United States and 
Canada 


Official drug 

Corydalis N.F. 


TAXONOMY 283 

placenta. Fruit a capsule — rarely indehiscent — bursting lengthwise 
by two valves. Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Sinapis Alba 
Sinapis Nigra 

Unofficial drug 

Semen Rapa; 


Part used 

Seed 

Seed 


Botanical name 

Sinapis alba 
Brassica nigra 


Habitat 

Europe and Asia 
Europe and Asia 


Seed 


Brassica napus Europe and Asia 


XIII. Order Sarraceniales. — Droseracece or Sundew Family . — 
Herbs ( Drosera , Dionaea, etc.) rarely shrubs ( Roridula of South 
Africa) growing in bogs or swamps or purely aquatic in habit 
(Aldrovanda) . Leaves, either rosettes or more or less scattered in 
alternate fashion over stem, usually glandular-hairy or sensitive- 
hairy and insectivorous. Inflorescence a loose raceme or cymose 


284 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


umbel. Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals five, aposepalous 
green; petals apopetalous, varying from white to whitish-pink, 
pink scarlet, purple to bluish-purple; stamens varying from fifteen 
to five, hypogymous; pistil syncarpous of five to three, rarely fewer 
carpels. Fruit a capsule. Seeds albuminous. 


Fig. 152 . — Drosera rot undifolia. Production of a young plant from the leaf of an 
older plant. (Gager.) 


Official drug 

Drosera N.F. 


Part used 

Entire plant 


f 


Botanical origin 

Drosera rotundifolia 
Drosera intermedia 
Drosera longifolia 


Habitat 

Eastern and West- 
ern Hemispheres 


XIV. Order Rosales. — Saxifragacece or Saxifrage Family . — 
Herbs ( Saxifraga , Mitella, etc.) or shrubs ( Hydrangea , Ribes, 
Philadel phus, etc.), rich in tannin content, with opposite or alter- 
nate leaves usually devoid of stipules. Both stamens and petals are 
generally inserted on the calyx. Fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. 
Seeds with copious albumen. 


TAXONOMY 


285 


Official drug Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Hydrangea N.F. Rhizome and roots Hydrangea United States 

arborescens 

Hamamelidacece or Wilchhazel Family . — Shrubs or small or large 
trees. Leaves, simple, alternate and pinnately veined; stipules 
deciduous to caducous, paired and slightly fused at the bases of 


petioles. Flowers frequently yellow to yellowish-white, in axillary 
clusters or heads or spikes, hermaphrodite or monoecious; sepals 
and petals five to four rarely indefinite, superior (petals absent in 
F other gilla ) ; stamens twice as many as the petals but the outer row 
alone fertile, the inner row being more or less barren and scale-like; 


286 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


gynoecium of two carpels united below. Fruit a two-beaked, two- 
celled woody capsule dehiscing at the summit, with a bony seed 
in each cell, or several, only one or two of them ripening. 


Official drug 

Styrax 

Hamamelidis 
Folia N.F. 


Part used 

Balsam from wood 
and inner bark 
Leaves 


Botanical name 

Liquidambar 

orientalis 

Hamamelis 

virginiana 


• Habitat 

The Levant 

United States and 
Canada 


Rosacea or Rose Family. — Herbs, shrubs, or trees mostly of 
temperate regions. Stem and branches upright or creeping (Straw- 
berry, Cinquefoil), herbaceous to woody. Leaves alternate, stipu- 
late (stipules green persistent to scaly deciduous), compound con- 
densing to “simple.” Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals and 
petals five — rarely four — inferior to ovary becoming by stages superior 
to it. Sepals green — at times with epicalyx (Strawberry, Cinquefoil, 
etc.), persistent round fruit. Petals usually yellow to white or to 
pink, crimson, rarely purple, rosaceous, deciduous. Stamens in- 
definite, perigynous (Strawberry, etc.), to semi-epigynous (Rose, 
Peach, etc.), and epigynous (Apple, Pear). Pistil apocarpous with 
many (Strawberry, Rose) carpels or fewer to five (Apple), or two 
to one (Plum, Cherry), becoming falsely fused by union with up- 
growing receptacle (Hawthorn, Apple) . Fruit a collection of achenes 
on dry (Cinquefoil) or succulent receptacle (Strawberry), or dry 
follicles (Bridal Wreath), or drupels (Blackberry), or a drupe (Peach, 
Plum, Cherry), or a pome (Apple, Pear). Seeds exalbuminous, 
embryo filling seed cavity. 


Official drug 

Amygdala Dulcis 

Prunus Virginiana 
Rubus N.F. 

Quillaja N.F. 
Brayera N.F. 


Part used 

Seed 

Bark 

Bark of rhizome 


Bark 

Panicles of pistil- 
late flowers 


Botanical name 

Prunus amygdalus 
variety dulcis 
Prunus serotina 

Rubus villosus, R. 
cuneifolius, and 
R. nigrobaccus 
Quillaja Saponaria 
Hagenia abyssinica 


Habitat 

Asia 

United States and 
Canada 
United States 


Chile and Peru 
Abyssinia 


TAXONOMY 


287 


Fig. 154.' — Hamamelis virginiana. Upper figure shows this shrub as it ap- 
pears in autumn after the leaves have fallen. Note that the plant is in blossom. 
Lower figure shows a flowering branch from the same plant. The bright yellow 
flowers occur in axillary clusters appearing at the same time as the ripening of 
fruits from blossoms of the previous year. 


pharmaceutical botany 


288 

Official drug 

Rosa Gallica 
Rubi Fructus 
N.F. 

Succus Pomorum 
N.F. 

Rubi Idasi 
Fructus N.F. 
Prunum N.F. 


Part used 

Petals 
Fresh fruit 

Juice of Fruit 
Juice of Fruit 
Fruit 


Botanical name 

Rosa gallica 
Rubus nigrobaccus 
and Rubus 
villosus 
Pyrus Malus 
(cultiv. var’s.) 
Rubus Idaeus and 
Rubus strigosus 
Prunus domestica 


Habitat 

Southern Europe 
United States 

Cultivated 
Europe and Asia 
Southern Europe 


Fig - !5S - — Quillaja saponaria — Branch. {Sayre.) 


TAXONOMY 


289 


Unofficial drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Amygdala Amara 

Seed 

Prunus amygdalus 
var. amara. 

Asia Minor, Persia, 
Syria 

Cydonium 

Seed 

Cydonia vulgaris 

Cultivated widely 

Rosa Centifolia 

Petals 

Rosa centifolia 

Western Asia 

Rosa Canina 

Spurious Fruit 

Rosa canina 

Europe 

Tormentilla 

Rhizome 

Potentilla 

silvestris 

Europe and Asia 


Fig. 156 . — Prunus domestica — Fruiting branch and flowering branch. (Sayre.) 


Leguminosce or Pea Family ( Fabacece ). — Herbs, shrubs or trees 
of all regions, with tubercled roots. Stem usually erect, rarely 
creeping (Trifolium repens). Leaves alternate, compound — rarely 
simple — stipulate, sometimes tendriliform or reduced to phvlloid 
petioles (Acacia sp.). Inflorescence a raceme, at times, condensed 
almost to a head or capitulum (Sp. of clover, Mimosa, etc.). Flowers 
pentamerous (rarely four), regular {Mimosece ) , to irregular (Ccesal- 
pinece, Papilionacece). Sepals five united, green; petals five 

19 


290 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


(rarely four) variously related, in Papilionaceae one superior, external, 
posterior — standard or vexillum, two lateral form wings or alae, 
two inferior internal and anterior slightly adherent form Keel. 


Fig. 157. — -Glycyrrhiza glabra — -Branch. (Sayre.) 


Stamens ten to four, free or in Papilionaceae united by filaments 
into a monadelphous (ten) or a diadelphous (nine to one) tube, 
inserted perigynously. Pistil monocarpellary, ovary with sutural 
placentation, style simple. Seeds exalbuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


2 QI 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical name 

Habitat 

Acacia 

Gummy exudation 

Acacia Senegal 
and other African 
species 

Africa 

Tragacantha 

Gummy exudation 

Astragalus gum- 
mifer and other 
Asiatic species 

Asia 

Balsamum 

Peruvianum 

Balsam 

Toluifera Pereirae 

Central America 

Balsamum 

Tolutanum 

Balsam 

Toluifera 

Balsamum 

Columbia 

Haematoxylon 

N.F. 

Heartwood 

Haematoxylon 

campechianum 

Central America 

Santalum Rubrum 

Heartwood 

Pterocarpus 

Indo China 


santalinus 


[_ Fig. 158 . — Cassia acutifolia — Branch showing flower and fruit. (Sayre.) 


292 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Part used 

Rhizome and roots 

Leaflets 

Fruit 

Pulp of fruit 
Oleoresin 
Neutral principle 

Seed 


Botanical name 

Glycyrrhiza glabra 
Glycyrrhiza 
( glandulifera 
( Cassia acutifolia 
j Cassia angustifolia 
Cathartocarpus 
fistula 

Tamarindus indica 
Copaiba species 
Vouacapoua 
Araroba 
Physostigma 


Official drug 

Glycyrrhiza 

Senna 

Cassia Fistula 
N.F. 

Tamarindus N.F. 

Copaiba 

Chrysarobinum 

Physostigma 

Kino 

Scoparius N.F. 
Trifolium N.F. 
Galega N.F. 
Baptisia N.F. 


Krameria N.F. 

Unofficial 

Fcenum graecum 

Piscidia 

Indigo 

Melilotus 

Soy Bean 


Inspissated juice 
Tops 

Inflorescence 
Flowering tops 
Roots 


Root 


venenosum 
Pterocarpus 
Marsupium 
Cytisus scoparius 
Trifolium pratense 
Galega officinalis 
Baptisia tinctoria 

Krameria triandra 
Krameria Ixina 

Krameria argentea 


Habitat 

Spain and France 
Southwestern 
Asia, Russia 
Egypt 

Arabia and India 
India 

Tropical Africa 
South America 
Brazil 

Africa 

India and Ceylon 

Europe 
United States 
Southern Europe 
Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 

Peru and Bolivia 
United States of 
Colombia, Brazil 
Brazil 


Seed 

Bark 

Coloring matter 
Leaves and flower- 
ing tops 
Seeds 


Trigonella 
F oenum-graecum 
Piscidia Erythrina 
Indigofera tinctoria 
Melilotus officinalis 

Glycine hispida 


Mediterranean 
region 
West Indies 
India 
Europe 

United States and 
Europe 


Abrus Seeds Abrus precatorious Tropics and sub- 

tropics 

Catechu Extract Acacia Catechu India 

Mucuna Hairs from fruits Mucuna pruriens East and West 

Indies 

XV. Order Geraniales (Gruinales). — Geraniacece or Geranium 
Family. — Herbaceous, rarely semi-succulent sub-shrubby plants. 
Stems cylindrical, often hairy or glandular hairy. Leaves alternate 


TAXONOMY 


293 


to opposite, stipulate; venation from pinnate to palmate, so leaf shape 
from ovate to pinnatifid to pinnatipartite to sub-palmatifid to 
palmatipartite to compound palmate. Inflorescence either a diche- 
sial or scorpoid cyme. Flowers regular pentamerous ( Geranium ) 


to irregular pentamerous (. Pelargonium ); sepals five, aposepalous; 
petals five, apopetalous, varying in color from greenish-white or 
pink-red to scarlet, scarlet-crimson to crimson-purple; stamens with 
anthers ten or five, hypogynous or inserted into slightly developed 
hypogynous disc; pistil pentacarpellary, ovary five-celled with two, 
rarely one ovule in each cell, styles elongate, fused round a stylar 


294 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


column of receptacle then continued as a stylar tip which splits into 
five stigmatic surfaces. Fruit a regma rarely a simple capsule. 
Regma splits into five recurved carpels, each then dehiscing to set 
free two or one seeds. Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 
Geranium N. F. 
Unofficial 


Oil of Rose 
Geranium 


Part used Botanical name Habitat 

Rhizome Geranium maculatum North America 


Volatile oil 


Pelargonium 
odoratissimum 
Pelargonium Radula 
Pelargonium 
capitatum 


Mediterranean 

regions 


LinacecR or Flax Family .- — Herbs with slender stems and alter- 
nate, simple, narrow leaves. Inflorescence cymose with regular 


TAXONOMY 


295 


pentamerous flowers; pistil five-carpelled with a five-celled ovary 
containing two ovules in each cavity and having a single style with 
knob-like stigma. While the flower is still in bud condition or soon 
after, there commences an ingrowth of the mid-rib of each carpel 
which proceeds until when plant is in fruit there are formed 10 cavi- 
ties each enclosing a seed. Seeds, anatropous, mucilaginous, flat- 
tened, containing a large embryo and slight albumen. 


Pig. 161. — Flax. A, floral diagram — c, calyx; co, corolla; 5, stamens; p, pistil. 
B, median lengthwise sectoin of flower. C, calyx and corolla removed. D, 
fruit, external view. E, cross-section of fruit. (Robbins.) 


Official drug 

Linum 
Oleum Lini 


Part used 

Seeds 
Fixed oil 


Botanical name Habitat 

Linum usitatissimum ) 

T . ,. . i emperate regions 

Linum usitatissimum 


296 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Erythroxylaceee or Coca Family . — -Shrubs ( Erythroxylon ) or trees 
with alternate, simple, entire, glabrous and pinnately veined leaves. 
Flowers regular, hermaphroditic, each with five sepals, five hypogy- 
nous petals, ten stamens and a two- to three-celled ovary subtend- 
ing three styles each with a capitate stigma. F ruit an ovoid, angular, 
one-celled drupe containing a single seed. 


Official drag 

Cocaina 

Unofficial 

Coca 


Part used 

Alkaloid 


Botanical origin 

Erythroxylon Coca 
and its varieties 


Habitat 

Peru and Bolivia 


Leaves 


Erythroxylon Coca Peru and Bolivia 
and its varieties 


Fig. 162 . — Guaiacum sanctum — Flowering branch. (Sayre.) 


TAXONOMY 


297 


Zygophyllacece or Caltrop Family. — Herbs, shrubs or trees ( Guia - 
cum ) having jointed, often divaricate branches. Leaves usually 
opposite, stipulate and compound. Flowers regular or irregular, 
pentamerous, white, yellow, red or blue (G. officinale). Fruit a 
capsule. 


Official drug 

Guaiacum 


Guaiaci Lignum 
N. F. 


Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

_. . . . [ Guaiacum officinale f Tropical and sub- 

Resin of wood 1 , , . , . 

[ Guaiacum sanctum l tropical America 

Heart wood G. officinale and G. Tropical and sub- 
sanctum tropical America 


Fig. 163 . — Citrus Auranlium — Branch. (Sayre.) 


Rutacece or Rue Family. — Herbs ( Ruta , Diosma, Barosma ) or 
shrubs ( Xanthoxylum ) or trees {Citrus). Stems upright, often wiry 
xerophytic, in sub-family Rutece, elongated and spiny in sub-family 


2g8 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

Zanthoxylece, woody and green in sub-family — Aurantiece. Leaves 
alternate or opposite, simple ( Ruta ), rarely whorled ( Pilocarpus ) or 

pinnatifid, as in Ruta graveolens, or 
pinnate, as lower parts of Ruta grave- 
olens, becoming reduced pinnate in 
Citrus Aurantium. Leaves exstipu- 
late or with spiny stipules (Xan- 
thoxylum). Stems and leaves abound 
in more or less sunken glands. 
Flowers pentamerous, varying in 
color from yellow in Ruta to white 
in Citrus to pink ( Barosma betulina) 
or pink crimson as in some Barosma 
and Diosma species, rarely to pinkish- 
purple (. Pilocarpus ); sepals five, 
aposepalous becoming in Citrus more 
or less synsepalous; petals five, apo- 
petalous becoming more or less 
synpetalous and tubular ( Correa 
grandiflora)-, stamens five, simple or 
with expanded liases, lobed, or lobes 
developed as staminal stipules and 
more or less split ( Citrus ); pistil of 
ten, five, three or two carpels, ovary 
as many-celled. Fruit a capsule 
(Dittany ,X anthoxylum) , berry ( Citrus ) 
Seeds albuminous or exalbuminous. 
Many of the plants contain volatile oils in their secretory cavities. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Aurantii Dulcis 

Outer rind of 

Citrus Aurantium 

Sub-tropics 

Cortex 

ripe fruit 

sinensis 


Aurantii Amari 
Cortex 

Rind of fruit 

Citrus Aurantium 

amara 

Northern India 

Limonis Cortex 

Outer rind of 

Citrus medica 

Northern India 


ripe fruit 

Limonum 

[ Pilocarpus Jaborandi 


Pilocarpus 

Leaflets | 

Pilocarpus 

microphyllus 

Brazil 


Fig. 164. — Barosma betulina — 
Branch and flower. (Sayre.) 

or rarely a samara (Ptelea). 


TAXONOMY 


299 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Buchu 

Leaves 

Barosma betulina 

Cape Colony 


and B. serratifolia 
[ Xanthoxylum 

Northern United 

Xanthoxylum 

Bark 

| americanum 

States 

Xanthoxylum 

Southern United 


l Clava-Herculis 

States 

Oleum Bergamottae 

Volatile oil 

Citrus Aurantium 

France, Italy 

N.F. 


Bergamia 


Oleum Aurantii 

Volatile oil 

Citrus Aurantium 

Northern India 

Florum N.F. 


amara 


Succus Citri N.F. 

Juice 

Citrus medica acida 

Asia 


I 

Xanthoxylum 

Northern 

Xanthoxyli 

Fructus N.F. } 

. 

Capsules 

americanum 

I Xanthoxylum 

United States 
Southern 


[ Clava-Herculis 

United States 

Unofficial 

Ruta 

Leaves 

Ruta graveolens 

Southern Europe 

Ptelea 

Bark of root 

Ptelea trifoliata 

North America 

Belae Fructus 

Unripe fruit 

HSgle Marmelos 

Malabar, 


Coromandel 


Simarubacea; or Ailanth/us Family. — A family of chiefly tropical 
shrubs or trees containing bitter principles. The leaves are alter- 
nate and pinnate. The flowers are dioecious or polygamous and 
arranged in axillary panicles ( Picrasma excelsa ) or racemes (Quassia 
amara). The plants are distinguished from those of the Rutacece 
by the absence of secretory cavities. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Quassia 

Wood 

f Picrasma excelsa 

West Indies 

Surinam 

i Quassia amara 

Unofficial 

Bark of root 

j Simaruba officinalis 

South America 

Simaruba 

( Simaruba amara 

Central America, 
Bahamas and 
Florida 


Burseracece or Myrrh Family. — Shrubs and trees of tropical climes 
having secretion reservoirs in their bark. Leaves alternate and 
compound. Flowers small, regular and hermaphrodite arranged in 
racemes or panicles. Fruit a drupe. 


3 °° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 
Myrrha 

Unofficial 

Olibanum 


Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Gum resin Commiphora species East Africa and 

Arabia 


Gum resin 


Boswellia carterii East Africa and 
Arabia 


Fig. 165 . — Picrasma excelsa — Branch. {Sayre.) 

Meliacece or Mahogany Family . — Tropical trees or shrubs with 
wood often hard, colored and odoriferous. Leaves alternate, ex- 


TAXONOMY 


301 


stipulate, pinnately compound, rarely simple and entire. Inflor- 
escence a terminal or axillary raceme. Flowers hermaphrodite or 
rarely polygamo-dioecious, regular; sepals five to four, small; petals 
usually five to four, hypogynous; stamens generally ten to eight, rarely 


Fig. 166 . — Commiphora myrrha — Branch. (Sayre.) 

five, very rarely twenty to sixteen, inserted outside the base of the 
hypogynous disc; filaments united into a tube; carpels usually five to 
three; style simple; ovary free, usually five- to three-celled. Fruit a 
drupe ( Melia ), berry (Vavaea), or capsule ( Cedrella ). Seeds exalbu- 
minous or with fleshy albumen. 

| Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Cocillana N.F. Bark Guarea Rusbyi Bolivia 


302 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Polygalacece or Milkwort Family . — Herbs or shrubs with upright, 
herbaceous to woody stems often branching profusely, the branches 
occasionally becoming geotropic or subterranean and bearing 


cleistogamous flowers. Leaves simple, often lanceolate or linear, 
exstipulate, alternate. Inflorescence a raceme, spike (. Polygala 
Senega ) or head ( P . lute a). Flowers irregular, hermaphroditic 


TAXONOMY 


3°3 


with commonly eight stamens. Fruit a two-celled capsule (P. 
Senega ), rarely a drupe or samara. Pollen grains barrel-shaped. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Senega Root Polygala Senega United States and 

Canada 

Euphorbiaceoe or Spurge Family. — Often herbaceous, more rarely 
shrubby, rather seldom arborescent plants. Stem, leaves and other 
parts in several genera traversed by latex canals that are either 
ramifying cells ( Euphorbias ) or laticiferous vessels ( Manihot , 
Hevea, etc.) or rows of laticiferous sacs ( Micrandra ) and contain a 
white latex with acrid often poisonous contents or alkaloid or 
hydrocarbon, at times, rubber contents. Leaves alternate, exstipu- 
late to stipulate, simple to pinnate or palmate. Inflorescence 
cymose. Flowers usually as in Ricinus, etc., pentamerous, diclin- 
ous; sepals five, green, aposepalous, becoming rudimentary or ab- 
sent in Anthostema and Euphorbia. Petals none or five more or less 
petaloid; stamens numerous to ten to five or one ( Euphorbia ); 
pistil in pistillate flowers rarely of twenty to ten apocarpous or 
loosely syncarpous carpels (Sandbox tree), commonly of three syn- 
carpous carpels with distinct radiate styles; ovary as many-celled 
as carpels with two to one ovules in each cell. Fruit a tricoccoid 
regma or capsule, rarely winged, indehiscent, nut-like. Seeds with 
oily endosperm. Flowers at times surrounded and subtended by 
more or less petaloid and expanded bracts and bracteoles. 


Official name 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Euphorbia 

Pilulifera N.F. 

Herb 

Euphorbia pilulifera 

Tropics and sub- 
tropics 

Stillingia 

Root 

Stillingia sylvatica 

Southern United 
States 

Oleum Ricini 

Volatile oil 

Ricinus communus 

Asia and Africa 

Oleum Tiglii 

Volatile oil 

Croton tiglium 

Asia 

Cascarilla N.F. 

Unofficial 

Bark 

Croton Eluteria 

West Indies 

Tapioca 

Starch 

Manihot utilissima 

South America 

Kamala 

Hairs of capsule 

Mallotus 

philippinensis 

Asia 

Elastica 

Prepared latex 

Hevea braziliensis 
and other species 

Brazil 


3°4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


XVI. Order Sapindales. — A nacardiaceoe or Sumac Family . — 
Shrubs or trees producing in stems and leaves secretion contents 
that are either acrid watery or acrid opalescent or white viscid, 
viscid acrid and poisonous. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, 
simple ( Rhus Cotinus ), three-foliate ( Rhus toxicodendron ) or pinnate 
(Rhus glabra, R. venenata, etc.). Inflorescence frequently terminal 
and composed of racemes or cymes, often reduced to a simple raceme. 
Flowers small, clustered, green, greenish-white to greenish-yellow; 
sepals five, rarely six or four green, small; petals five smaller than 
sepals; stamens equal in number to the petals and alternate, rarely 
fewer, sometimes double in number, rarely indefinite, inserted 
hypogynously or upon an enlarged disc that surrounds or swells 
up between stamens and pistil; pistil monocarpellary more rarely 
bicarpellary, very rarely as in Spondiece of ten to five carpels, 
ovary one-celled with single ovule. Fruit a drupe. Seeds exalbumi- 
nous with large embryo filling seed cavity. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Rhus Glabra N.F. 

Ripe fruits 

Rhus glabra 

Canada and 
United States 

Mastiche N.F. 

Unofficial 

Concrete resin- 
ous exudate 

Pistacia Lentiscus 

Grecian 

Archipelago 

Chinese Galls 

Excrescences 

Rhus semialata 

China 

Japanese Galls 

Excrescences 

Rhus japonica 

Japan 

Rhus Typhina 

Ripe fruits 

Rhus typhina 

United States 

Acajou Gum 

Gum 

Anacardium 

occidentale 

West Indies 

Pistachio 

Seeds 

Pistacia vera 

Western Asia 

Anacardium 

Fruit 

Anacardium 

occidentale 

West Indies 

Rhus 

Fresh leaflets 

Rhus toxicodendron 

United States 


Toxicodendron 


Celastracece or Staff Tree Family.- — Shrubs (Euonymus) , or shrubby 
climbers (Celastrus) . Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, simple, en- 
tire or toothed. Inflorescence of axillary cymes or terminal racemes. 
Flowers perfect (Euonymus , Pachistima) or polygamo-dioecious (Cleas- 
trus ) greenish (Celastrus), greenish or yellowish- white (Euonymus 
Europaus) , greenish-purple (Euonymus americanus ) to dark-purple 


TAXONOMY 


3°S 


(. Euonymus atropurpureus ); calyx four to five-lobed; corolla of four 
to five petals; stamens four to five, perigynous, inserted on a disc, 
which fills the base of the calyx and sometimes covers the ovary; 
ovary three- to five-celled. Fruit a two- to five-celled capsule. 


Fig. 168 . — Euonymus atropurpureus. Flowering branch to left; fruiting branch 

to right. 

Seeds albuminous with fleshy succulent reddish aril ( Euonymus , 
Celastrus ) or white membranous aril ( Pachistima ). 

Official drug Part used 

Euonymus N.F. Bark of root 


20 


Botanical origin 

Euonymus 

atropurpureus 


Habitat 

United States 


3 ° 6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Sapindacece or Soapwort Family. — Trees, shrubs, undershrubs or 
rarely herbs of tropical climes containing the glucoside saponin. 
Stem erect or climbing ( Paullinia ) often provided with tendrils. 
Leaves commonly alternate and compound. Flowers in racemes 


Fig. 169. — Cross section through root-bark of Euonymus atropurpureus. 
Note the two broad dome-shaped phloem patches, one on either side of a wedge- 
shaped primary medullary ray. 


or panicles ( Paullinia ), perfect or polygamo-dioecious, yellowish in 
Paullinia Cupana. Fruit a capsule (P. Cupana), samara, drupe or 
berry. Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Guarana 

Dried Paste, 
chiefly of 
crushed seeds 

Paullinia Cupana 

Brazil 


TAXONOMY 


3 ° 7 


Aceraceae or Maple Family. — Chiefly trees, occasionally shrubs, of 
temperate regions with watery sap. Leaves opposite, simple and 
palmately lobed, cleft (Acer) or pinnate (. Negundo ). Inflorescence 
a raceme condensing in some species to a capitulum of cymes. 
Flowers small, regular, polygamous or dioecious; sepals five to four 
green; petals none or five, variously colored; stamens usually eight, 
hypogynous or perigynous; nectar disc around stamens or between 
them and pistil; pistil bicarpellary with two-celled ovary. Fruit a 
samara. Seeds green exalbuminous with coiled or folded embryo 
and long thin cotyledons. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical orign Habitat 

Acer Spicatum Bark Acerspicatum United States 

XVII. Order Rhamnales . — Rhamnacece or Buckthorn Family . — 
Shrubs or low trees usually of branching or spreading habit. 
Branches either cylindric or long green or hardened, checked back 
and spinescent, occasionally, especially flowering branches developing 
tendrils for support. Leaves simple, usually alternate. Flowers 
hermaphrodite or more or less diclinous, pentamerous to tetramer- 
ous, greenish to greenish-yellow to yellowish-white; sepals five to 
four; petals five to four alternating with sepals; stamens five opposite 
the petals, perigynous; pistil either free in center of receptacular cup 
or more or less fused with it and so semi-inferior, ovary typically 
three-celled becoming rarely four-celled with two to one atropous 
ovules in each cavity. Fruit of three indehiscent cocci, each en- 
closing a single albuminous seed with straight embryo imbedded 
in albumen. 


Official drug 

Parts used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Cascara Sagrada 

Bark 

Rhamnus Purshiana 

Northern Cali- 
fornia to south- 
western British 
America 

Frangula 

Bark 

Rhamnus Frangula 

Europe 

Rhamnus 

Fruit 

Rhamnus cathartica 

Asia and Africa 


Cathartica N.F. 

Vitacece or Grape Family. — Rarely tall herbaceous, usually 
shrubby and climbing, more rarely shrubby upright plants. Stems 


3°8 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


rarely short more usually elongate, feeble, rather brittle, climbing 
by tendrils which represent modified inflorescence shoots. Leaves 
alternate, simple to lobed (either pinnately or more often palmately) 
to compound-pinnate or palmate. Perfect graded series of lanceo- 


Fig. 170 .- — Rhamnus frangula — Branch. (Sayre.) 


late leaves with pinnate veining to palmate veining; from pinnately 
veined to compound-pinnate; from palmately veined to compound- 
palmate. Stipules greenish to membranous or none. Flowers in 
racemes of compressed cymes, hermaphrodite or diclinous, nearly 


TAXONOMY 


309 


always small, clustered, green to greenish-yellow or greenish- 
white, rarely otherwise; sepals five rarely four, small to minute (mere 
rim of receptacle) more or less persistent. Petals five, deciduous to 
caducous, typically distinct, in Vitis united by their tips into calyp- 
troform corolla, so in June, as Grape Vine flowers expand, corolla 
splits at base into five lobes that separate below, being attached at 
tips, while whole becomes tumbled off by lengthening stamens. 
Pistil bicarpellate. Ovary two-celled, superior or at most sub- 
inferior. Ovules two to one, erect. Style short often more or less 
thickened with terminal, capitate, slightly two-lobed stigmas. 
Stamens equal to petals or sepals and opposite petals. Receptacle 
internal to stamens often expanded into nectariferous girdle or in 
Vitis into receptacular knobs alternating with stamens. Fruit 
a berry rarely six- to three-celled, typically two-celled and with 
two to one seeds in each cavity. Seeds like ovules, erect, with 
bony testa. Embryo small, imbedded at base of cartilaginous 
albumen. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

VinumXericum Fermented juice Vitis species Cultivated 

N.F. of ripe fruit (cultivated) 

VIII. Order Malvales. — Sterculiacea or Cola Family .- — Rarely 
herbs, usually shrubs or tall, often heavy trees with soft wood and 
broad annual rings. The cambium in developing bast produces 
one, two, three, four, or five alternating layers of hard and soft 
bast which in some species of this as well as the TiliacecB family 
form long finger-like processes pushing out into the cortex. Leaves 
alternate, sometimes simple and pinnately veined or passing to 
palmately veined or palmately compound. Flowers hermaphrodite; 
sepals five, sometimes surrounded by bracteoles forming an epicalyx ; 
petals usually five; stamens typically five hypogynous, opposite 
petals, distinct or slightly fused in monadelphous fashion ( Melochia , 
Waltheria ) or, stamens subdivided above into few or numerous stam- 
inal leaflets, anthers two-celled; pistil many to ten- to five- or four- 
carpelled; carpels apocarpous or more usually partially or completely 
united. Fruit either follicles, or fused to form a capsule of ten or 
more, frequently five dehiscent carpels or, carpels splitting asunder 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


310 


into cocci or, 
rarely the fruit 


becoming a woody capsular nut ( Theobroma ) or, 
may become succulent. Seeds globose or subglobose 


and often provided with wings, arils or similar appendages; embryo 
straight, large and surrounded by scanty albumen. 


TAXONOMY 


Official drug 

Oleum 

Theobromatis 
Cacao Praspara- 
tum N.F. 

Kola N.F. 


Part used 

Fixed oil 

Prepared powder 
from roasted 
kernels of seeds 
Cotyledons 


Botanical origin 

Theobroma Cacao 

Theobroma Cacao 
and other species 

Cola acuminata and 
other species 


3± i 

Habitat 

Tropical America 
Tropical America 

Africa, West’ 
Indies 


Tiliacece or Linden Family. — Shrubs or trees, rarely herbs, having 
stellate hairs on both stems and leaves. Leaves alternate, pinnately 
more rarely palmately veined, stipulate. Inflorescence cymose. 
Flowers hermaphrodite, more rarely by absorption more or less 
diclinous; sepals and petals five each, more rarely four, sepals de- 
ciduous; stamens five opposite the petals or, as in Sterculiacece, 
five phalanges of stamens representing subdivided stamens ( Tilia ), 
pistil of ten to five or two syncarpous carpels; ovary superior. 
Fruit either a nut-like drupe or drupe, rarely baccate. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Tilia Inflorescence Tilia species United States and 

Europe 

Malvaceae or Mallow Family. — Herbs in temperate regions 
{Malva rotundifolia, Althaea officinalis, etc.), occasionally shrubs in 
temperate regions ( Hibiscus Syriacus, etc.), frequently shrubs or tall 
trees in the tropics. Stems as in Sier cidiaceae and Tiliacece, some- 
times forming numerous layers of hard and soft bast. Leaves al- 
ternate and stipulate, ovate, ovate-cordate, orbicular or palmately 
compound; venation pinnate or palmate. Stems, roots and leaves 
contain mucilage cells. Inflorescence a raceme or fascicle of cymes. 
Flowers regular, pentamerous; calyx green, of five aposepalous sepals 
but frequently surrounded outside by an epicalyx. Both calyx and 
epicalyx are persistent. Corolla of five petals varying in color which 
are more or less fused with stamens at their bases; stamens mon-adel- 
phous and forming an upright column enclosing the styles; anthers 
one-celled, dehiscing transversely; pollen grains echinate; pistil 
loosely or strongly syncarpous, rarely sub-apocarpous of thirty to 
five carpels. Fruit either a set of cocci, follicles or a capsule (Gos- 
sypium). Seeds albuminous with oily and mucilaginous albumen. 


3 12 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


TAXONOMY 


3 J 3 


Official drug 

Althaea 

Althaeae Folia N.F. 


Part used 

Root (peeled) 
Leaves 


Gossypii Cortex N.F. Bark of root 


Gossypium 

Purificatum 

Oleum Gossypii 
Seminis 

Unofficial 

Althaeae Flores 


Hairs of seed 

Fixed oil from 
seeds 

Flowers 


Botanical origin 

Althaea officinalis 
Althaea officinalis 
Cultivated varieties of: 
Gossypium 
herbaceum 

Gossypium 

Barbadense 

Gossypium 

arboreum 

Cultivated varieties 
of Gossypium 
herbaceum 


Habitat 

Europe and Asia 
Europe and Asia 

Arabia, United 
States, East 
Indies 

United States and 
i Africa 

Egypt, Arabia and 
India 

Arabia, East 
Indies, United 
States 


Cultivated varieties 
of Gossypium 
species 


United States, 
Asia, Africa and 
South America 


Althaea rosea 


Europe 


Fig. 173. — Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). A, mature boll opened 
out; B, cross-section of young boll; C, single seed with fibers; D, young boll. 
(Robbins.) 


3M 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


XIX. Order Parietales (Ovaries of flowers have parietal placentas). 
— Theacece or Tea Family ( T ernstrcemiacece, C ammeliacece) . — Ever- 
green shrubs or low branching or tall, often heavy trees with watery 
juice. Leaves for the most part alternate, evergreen, often leathery, 
sometimes membranous; stipules either bud scales and caducous 
or often absent; leaf margins sinuate or serrate ( Thea ). Inflores- 
cence a raceme becoming by condensation terminal, one-flowered. 
Flowers regular, perfect, pentamerous; sepals five, rarely four to 
three, deciduous, occasionally subtended by bracteolar scales; petals 
five, brittle and succulent varying from greenish-white or greenish- 
yellow through yellow to white or, from whitish pink to pink, scarlet, 
crimson, very rarely a tendency toward purple; stamens typically 
five but, as they grow, they subdivide into staminal leaflets so that 
in their mature condition they are apparently indefinite and mono- 
to polyadelphous; stamens inserted hypogynously or perigynously 
and opposite the petals; pistil of typically five syncarpous carpels but 
reduced in some species to four to three or two. Fruit usually a cap- 
sule (Thea), five- to three-celled, dehiscing longitudinally, more 
rarely a fleshy, semi-baceate, semi-drupacous indehiscent fruit. 
Seeds with scanty or no albumen and often attached to inner angle 
of cells by projecting spongy placentae. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin 

Caffeina Feebly basic Thea sinensis 

substance 

Unofficial 

Thea Leaves Thea sinensis var. 

Bohea and viridis 

Gutliferoe or Gamboge Family.- — -Tropical trees (Garcinia), rarely 
shrubs, containing resinous principles in resin canals found in cortex 
and pith. Leaves opposite, coriaceous. Flowers dioecious, gener- 
ally pentamerous or tetramerous with usually five stamens which 
are subdivided. Fruit a berry ( Garcinia Hanburyi), drupe or cap : 
sule. Seeds generally large; embryo large to huge often with en- 
larged radicle and reduced or absorbed cotyledons. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

_ , „ . „ . . TT , . j Malabar coast 

Cambogia Gum resin Garcinia Hanburyi > , 

l and rravancore 


Habitat 

Eastern Asia 


Eastern Asia 


TAXONOMY 


315 


Canellacece Family . — Trees the bark of which contains aromatic 
principles. Leaves alternate, pellucid-punctate. Flowers regular, 
golden-yellow, and arranged in terminal or axillary cymes. Fruit 
a berry containing two to many seeds with oily and fleshy albumen. 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 


Fig. 174 . — Garcinia hanburii — Branch. (Sayre.) 


Bixacea Family . — Tropical shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, 
simple with minute or no stipules. Flowers hermaphrodite or uni- 


3 l6 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


sexual, regular; stamens hvpogynous, mostly indefinite with anthers 
opening by slits, rarely by one or two apical pores ( Bi.xa ). Fruit 
fleshy or dry. Seeds with fleshy allrumen and sometimes covered 
with a fleshy arillus {Bi.xa Orellana). 


Unofficial drug 

Annatto 
Chaulmoogra oil 


Part used 

Coloring matter 

Fixed oil from 
seeds 


Botanical origin 

Bixa Orellana 
Gynocardia odorata 


Habitat 

Tropical America 
and Madagascar 
India 


Violacece or Violet Family. — Herbs or shrub. Stems upright, 
rarely creeping, spreading or acaulescent. Leaves either cauline or 
radical, stipulate, alternate, simple to pinnatifid or palmate. 
Flowers pentamerous, regular or irregular {Viola). Fruit a loculi- 
cidally dehiscent capsule {Viola) rarely baccate. Seeds albuminous. 


Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Viola Entire herb Viola tricolor Temperate regions 

Turner aceae or Damiana Family. — Tropical herbs, shrubs or 
trees. Leaves alternate, simple, petioled, exstipulate. Flowers 
perfect, regular, axillary, pentamerous with one-called ovary. Fruit 
a capsule with three valves. Seeds strophiolate with albuminous 
embryo. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin 

I Turnera diffusa 

Damiana N.F. Leaves Turnera 

| aphrodisiaca 

Passifloracece or Passion Flower Family. — Herbaceous or woody 
vines climbing by tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, lobed 
or compound. Flowers perfect or imperfect, solitary; peduncles 
jointed at the flower; perianth petaloid with urceolate or tubular 
tube and four to five or eight to ten partite and two-seriate limb, the 
throat usually crowmed by one or more series of subulate filaments 
which are frequently colored; gynophore elongating supporting the 
stamens and pistil. Fruit a one-celled berry ( Passiflora ) or three- 
to five-valved dehiscent capsule containing numerous seeds. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Passiflora N.F. Entire herb Passiflora incarnata United States 


Habitat 

j Lower California 
1 and Mexico 


TAXONOMY 


3*7 


Caricacece or Papaw Family. — A family of latex-containing trees 
composed of two genera indigenous to tropical America. Of chief 
pharmaceutic interest is the species Carica Papaya, the Papaw or 
Melon tree, the fruit of which yields Papain, a valuable digestive 
ferment. This plant is a tree about 20 feet high which bears at its 
summit a cluster of deeply lobed petiolate leaves and dioecious flow- 
ers. The fruit is a berry, the size of one’s head and contains an acrid 
milky juice from which papain can be precipitated by the addition 
of alcohol. 

Cistacece or Rock Rose Family. — Herbs or shrubs whose stem and 
branches are often glandular, pubescent or tomentose, with simple 
or stellate trichomes. Leaves simple, entire, the lower ones opposite, 
upper alternate. Flowers perfect, regular, terminal, and solitary 
or in cymes or unilateral racemes; sepals five, the two external ones 
often bractiform or wanting; petals five {H elianlhemum) rarely three 
or none { Lechea ); stamens hypogynous, indefinite; carpels three to 
five, ovary free, one-celled. Fruit a one-celled three- to five-valved 
capsule. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Helianthemum Herb Helianthemum Eastern United 

N.F. canadense States 

XX. Order Opuntiales. — Cactacece or Cactus Family. — Herba- 
ceous rarely arborescent ( Cereus giganteus) more or less succulent 
plants living in warm dry {Peireskia) usually desert situations, rarely 
becoming epiphytic and correspondingly modified. Stems accord- 
ingly varying from elongate, slightly enlarged, green ( Peireskia ) to 
flattened ( Cereus and Opuntia) to condensed [Echino cactus , Echino- 
cereus, etc.) to greatly condensed ( Mamillaria ). Leaves alternate, 
stipulate or exstipulate, enlarged and more or less fleshy (. Peireskia ) 
becoming reduced green and semicircular ( Opuntia ) or modified into 
spines or wholly absorbed. Flowers, regular, solitary or fascicled in 
axils of leaves; sepals five; petals similar to sepals, petaloid, small to 
much enlarged, in color varying from yellow to white or from yellow 
to yellowish-pink, pink, scarlet or crimson; stamens indefinite in- 
serted at varying levels in the throat of a greatly expanded upgrown 
receptacle; pistil generally tricarpellary; ovary inferior, often 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


318 


deeply sunk in upgrown receptacular part; style thread-like, divided 
above into as many stigmas as carpels. Fruit a receptacular berry 
enclosing numerous small seeds. Seeds exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Cactus 

Grandiflorus 

N.F. 


Part used 

Fresh succulent 
stems 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Cactus grandiflorus 1 _ ... 

... , Tropical America 

(Cereus grandiflorus) j 


Fig. 175 . — Daphne mezereum — Fruiting branch and flowers. (Sayre.) 


XXI. Order Myrtales (Myrtiflorae). — Thymeleacece or Mezereum 

Family . — Shrubs ( Daphne Mezereum ) or low trees, usually of branch- 
ing habit, the stems developing long tenacious bast fibers. Leaves 


TAXONOMY 


319 


alternate, rarely, opposite, coriaceous, simple, varying from lanceolate 
to ovate. Inflorescence a condensed raceme or spike. Flowers 
perfect, polygamous or dioecious, small with calyx alone of the 
perianth parts developed. This is crimson-purple in Daphne 
Mezereum. Sepals usually fused to form a tube or cup-shaped 
perianth. Stamens usually eight in two rows of four longer and 
four shorter ( Daphne Mezereum ) inserted on the calyx tube. Pistil 
monocarpellary; ovary superior mostly one-celled with a single 
pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut, drupe or berry {Daphne). 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

| Daphne Mezereum J 

Mezereum Bark Daphne Gnidium f Europe and Asia 

[ Daphne Laureola J 


Fig. 176 . — Punica granalum — Branch with flowers. (Sayre.) 

Punicacece (. Lythracece ) or Pomegranate Family. — Herbs ( Cuphea ), 
shrubs ( Decadon ) or low trees {Punica). Leaves either alternate, 
opposite {Punica) or whorled, simple, usually lanceolate to ovate, 
entire often glandular and viscous. Inflorescence a raceme, spike, 
or condensed cyme. Flowers perfect usually regular but pass more 
or less to irregular, sometimes very irregular as in genus Cuphea; 


3^6 PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 

sepals five to four, more or less fused below in themselves and with 
calyx tube; petals commonly five, often frilled or crumpled, inserted 
on the mouth of the calyx tube; stamens fifteen, ten or five in alter- 
nate rows of five each, inserted hypogynously or perigynously; 
pistil six-, five-, four-, two-, rarely one-carpeled with as many cavities 
in the ovary and numerous small ovules; style elongate with pointed 
or knobbed stigma. Flowers of Punica granatum are scarlet in color. 
Fruit a baccate capsule ( Punica granatum) or capsule dehiscing longi- 
tudinally or transversely. Seeds exalbuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin 

Granatum Bark Punica Granatum 

Unofficial 

Granati Fructus Rind of fruit Punica Granatum 

Cortex 

Myrtacece or Myrtle Family. — Rarely herbs {Carey a) mostly 
shrubs or trees, some being the tallest trees known ( Eucalyptus ). 
Stems often tend to develop cork in flakes which separate much as 
in the Buttonwoods. Leaves rarely alternate nearly always oppo- 
site, entire often glistening, subcoriaceous to coriaceous {Euca- 
lyptus, Pimento, etc.), frequently edge-on in position upon branches. 
Inflorescence cymose, at times forming scorpoid cymes becoming 
condensed into small fascicles, or each cyme condensing into a 
solitary flower. 

Flowers regular or very rarely irregular from the lop-sided 
development of the stamens. Symmetry rarely hexamerous, 
typically pentamerous, not infrequently reduced to tetramerous 
{Clove)-, sepals five, six or four, aposepalous, or synsepalous at base, 
superior, and inserted around the edge of an expanded, upgrown 
receptacular disc, varying from green and more or less expanded 
to short thick fleshy {Clove) or reduced to teeth {Eucalyptus) ; petals 
equal in number to the sepals, more or less petaloid and enlarged, 
rarely reduced and wanting, varying in color from green through 
greenish-yellow to white {Eugenia species) or from whitish to pink, 
scarlet, crimson, purple and blue, petals sometimes synpetalous 
and cup-like, detaching as the flower opens; stamens usually indefi- 
nite and epigynous, varying in the color of their filaments as do the 


Habitat 

India 

India 


TAXONOMY 


3 21 


21 


322 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


petals; pistil rarely of ten to six carpels usually of five, not infre- 
quently as in Clove of four carpels; ovary inferior or semi-inferior, 
as many-celled as there are carpels and with central placentation ; 


Fig. 178 . — Eugenia aromalica. (Sayre.) 


style elongate; stigma undivided. Fruit either a hard, woody in- 
dehiscent nut (Brazil Nut), a capsule dehiscing at apex ( Eucalyptus ) 
or berry {Eugenia). Seeds exalbuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


323 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Eucalyptus 

Leaves 

Eucalyptus globulus 

| Australia, 

Eucalyptol 

Organic oxide 

Eucalyptus globulus j 

1 Tasmania 

Caryophyllus 

Flower buds 

Eugenia aromatica ] 

[ Molucca Islands 

Eugenol 

Aromatic phenol 

Eugenia aromatica j 

Pimenta N.F. 

Fruit 

Pimenta officinalis 

West Indies, 
Central America, 
Mexico 

Oleum Cajuputi 

Unofficial 

Volatile oil from 
leaves and twigs 

Melaleuca 

Leucadendron 

East Indies 

Myrcia 

Volatile oil and 
leaves 

Myrcia acris 

West Indies 

Eucalyptus Kino 

Inspissated juice 

Eucalyptus rostrata 
and other species 

Australia 

Combretacece 

or Myrobalans 

Family. — Mostly 

tropical shrubs 


and trees containing considerable tannin. Leaves exstipulate, 
alternate or opposite, simple, pinnately veined, entire or toothed. 
Inflorescence a raceme, spike or head. Flowers regular, perfect 
or imperfect. Fruit a drupe, frequently longitudinally winged 
containing a single seed. 

Unofficial drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Combretum Leaves Combretum Sumatra 

sundaicum 

XXII. Order Umbellales or Umbelliflorae. — Araliacece or Gin- 
seng Family. — Herbs (. Panax quinquefolium, Hedera Helix, Aralia 
nudicaulis, etc.), undershrubs ( Aralia hispida, etc.), shrubs ( Fatsia 
horrida), or trees ( Aralia spinosa) with stems which are more or less 
hollow along internodes and solid at nodes. Leaves alternate, vary- 
ing from simple to trifoliate or to multipinnate (tropical Aralias) or 
passing by telescoping [into compound-palmate. Leaves serrate 
margined and along with stem they develop volatile oil, resin and 
gum contents in secretion reservoirs. Inflorescence varying from a 
raceme of umbels to a raceme and even to condensed racemose 
umbels. Flowers regular, generally pentamerous, small, generally 
inconspicuous, green, greenish-yellow to rarely white, usually 
hermaphrodite but sometimes polygamous or dioecious; sepals 

I . / 


3 2 4 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


five, rarely four; petals five, rarely four, often greenish to greenish- 
yellow, occasionally white, seldom pink in color; stamens varying 
from indefinite to ten to commonly five, opposite sepals, and, like 
sepals, epigynous in insertion; anthers versatile; pistil occasionally 
fifteen- to ten-, usually five-carpellate; ovary as many celled with one 
or rarely two pendulous ovules in each cavity; styles distinct 
ending in knob-shaped stigmas. Fruit a berry. Seeds albuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Aralia N.F. 

Unofficial 

Rhizome and 

roots 

Aralia racemosa 

Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 

Aralia Nudicaulis 

Rhizome 

Aralia nudicaulis 

Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 

Aralia Spinosa 

Bark 

Aralia spinosa 

Eastern United 
States 

Ginseng 

Root 

Panax quinquefolium 

North America 

Panax Repens 

Rhizome 

Panax repens 

Japan 

U mbelliferce 

or Parsley Pam 

ily. — Herbs, rarely shrubs, often 


rapid growth, and with upright fistular (hollow at internodes, 
solid at nodes) often grooved and ridged stems. Leaves alternate, 
compound and usually much divided, exstipulate, but with expanded 
sheathing and flattened leaf base (Pericladium), that ensheathes 
the stem. Inflorescence a simple or often compound umbel sur- 
rounded by an involucre of bracts or of bracteoles. Flowers small, 
pentamerous, with inferior ovary and superior floral parts. Sepals 
minute, tooth-like, inserted above inferior ovary, or absorbed. 
Petals small, usually yellow to white, rarely pink to purple, distinct, 
each with indexed tip. Stamens five, epigynous, inserted below a 
nectariferous, epigynous disc, incurved in bud. Carpels two fused 
into bicarpellate pistil. Ovary two-celled, with one pendulous 
ovule in each cell, ovarian wall traversed by oleoresin canals; 
styles two distinct above the nectar disc or stylopod. Fruit a dry, 
splitting fruit or cremocarp, that splits lengthwise into two mericarps 
which hang for a time by a forked carpophore. Seeds single in each 
mericarp, albuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


325 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Anisum 

Ripe fruit 

Pimpinella Anisum 

Asia Minor, Egypt 


and Greece. 

Anethol N.F. 

1 Methyl ether of 
para-pro- 
1 phenyl phenol | 

Pimpinella Anisum 
Foeniculum vulgare 


Fceniculum 

Nearly ripe 

Foeniculum vulgare 

Mediterranean 


fruit 


region 

Sumbul 

Rhizome and 

Ferula Sumbul 

Turkestan 


roots 


Carum 

Fruit 

Carum Carvi 

Europe, Asia 

Conium N.F. 

Unripe fruit 

Conium maculatum 

Europe 

Asafcetida 

Gum resin 

Ferula foetida, F. 

Persia and 


Asafoetida, etc. 

Afghanistan 

Coriandrum 

Ripe fruit 

Coriandrum sativum 

Mediterranean 


and Caucasian 


regions 

Petroselinum 

Ripe fruit 

Petroselinum 

Southern Europe 


sativum 

Asia Minor 

Petroselini Radix 

Root 

Petroselinum 

Southern Europe, 

N.F. 


sativum 

Asia Minor 

Angelicse Fructus 

Ripe fruit 

Angelica Archangel- 

Northern Europe 

N.F. 


ica and other species 
of Angelica 

and Siberia 

Angelicse Radix 

Rhizome and 

Angelica atropur- 

United States and 

N.F. 

roots 

purea and other 
species of Angelica 

Canada 

Apii Fructus N.F. 

Ripe fruit 

Apium graveolens 

England 

Unofficial 

Imperatoria 

Root 

Imperatoria 

Europe 


Ostruthium 


Pimpinella 

Roots I 

1 

Pimpinella Saxifraga 
Pimpinella magna 

| Central Europe 

Ammoniacum 

Gum-resin 

Dorema 

Persia 


Ammoniacum 


Galbanum 

Gum-resin 

Ferula galbaniflua 

Persia and 


Afghanistan 

Levisticum 

Root 

Levisticum officinale 

Europe 


Cornacece or Dogwood Family. — Herbs ( Cornus canadensis, etc.), 
shrubs (1 Cornus sanguinea, etc.) or trees ( Cornus florida, Nyssa 
sylvatica, etc.). Leaves simple, alternate (Sour Gum), or opposite 
(Dogwoods). Inflorescence an umbel or head, the whole being 


326 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


surrounded by an enlarged and more or less petaloid involucre. 
Flowers regular, rarely pentamerous, more frequently tetramerous; 
sepals usually four, small tooth-like or absorbed; petals usually 
four, small, greenish to yellowish to white ( Cornus florida), rarely 
pink or crimson; stamens four or five alternate to the petals and 
inserted with the sepals and petals epigynously around and between 
the nectar disc; pistil syncarpous, bicarpellate, rarely tricarpellate; 
ovary as many celled with one pendulous ovule in each cavity; 
style usually simple, ending in rounded or slightly bilobed stigma. 
Fruit a two-seeded drupe. Seeds albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Cornus N.F. Bark of root Cornus florida Eastern United 

States and 
Canada 

Sub-class b. — Sympetal.® (Gamopetal.® or Metachlamyde^e) 

A flivision of dicotyledonous plants in which the flowers possess 
both calyx and corolla, the latter with petals more or less united 
into one piece. 

I. Order Ericales. — Ericacece or Heath Family. — Sub-herbaceous 
(■ Chimaphila ), suffruticose {Erica), fruticose {Azaleas, Kalmias, 
etc.), rarely sub-arborescent {Arbutus unedo or Strawberry Tree) 
plants. Roots fibrous often saprophytically associated, rarely 
tuberous or more or less enlarged. Stem upright, ascending or creep- 
ing, more or less woody, rarely through saprophytic connection be- 
coming soft, annual and pale above ground {Monotropa uniflora ). 
Leaves alternate, simple, entire, exstipulate, rarely soft, delicate, 
herbaceous {Azaleas), usually leathery to wiry and evergreen, more 
rarely {Pterospora, Monotropa, etc.) becoming greenish-blue, bluish- 
yellow, yellowish-white to white and correspondingly saprophytic. 
Inflorescence typically a raceme {Pyrola, Andromeda, Gaylussacia, 
Erica, Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi, etc.) but raceme condensed into a 
racemose umbel {Azalea, etc.) or further reduced to a few flowers or, 
in the degraded saprophytic condition to one flower {Monotropa 
uniflora). Flowers regular, passing to irregular {Rhododendron) , 
pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals five to four rarely fewer, apo- 
to synsepalous, usually green, sometimes brightly petaloid; petals 


TAXONOMY 


327 


five more rarely four, slightly to deeply synpetalous, cup-shaped 
(Kalmia) to urceolate ( Arctostaphylos Andromeda , etc.), yellow to 
white or through yellow pink to scarlet to crimson to crimson- 
purple; stamens ten to eight in two circles of -five to four each, be- 
coming by absorption of inner circle five to four only, hypogynous, 
epipetalous or epigynous; anthers two-celled, dehiscing by apical 


pores ( Arctostaphylos ) or apical slits; pollen sometimes agglutinated 
into long viscous threads; pistil five- to four-, rarely six- to eight- car- 
peled, superior, rarely semi-inferior to inferior ( V accinece ) ; ovary as 
many celled as there are carpels; style elongated, filiform, usually 
five- to four lobed. Fruit a capsule (Trailing Arbutus), berry ( Vac - 
cinium ) or false drupe ( Gaultheria ). Seeds small, anatropous. 


328 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat ' 

United States, 

Chimaphila N.F. 

Leaves 

Chimaphila 

umbellata 

J 

] 

i Canada, North- 
( ern Europe and 
Asia 

Northern United 

Uva Ursi 

Leaves 

Arctostaphylos Uva | 
Ursi 

J 

States and 

1 Canada, Europe 
and Asia 

Methylis Salicylas 

Unofficial 

Volatile oil 

Gaultheria 

procumbens 

United States and 
Canada 

Gautheria 

Leaves 

Gaultheria 

procumbens 

United States and 
Canada 


II. Order Ebenales. — SapotacecE or Star Apple Family. — Tropical 
shrubs or trees ( P alaquium ) characterized by the presence of lati- 
ciferous sacs in the pith and cortex of the stems and adjoining the 
veins of the leaves. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, evergreen and 
coriaceous. Flowers perfect, large and axillary. Fruit a berry 
(P alaquium) rarely a capsule ( Ponteria ). 


Official drug 

Gutta Percha N.F. 


Part used 

f Purified coagu- 
j lated milky 
[ exudate 


Botanical origin 

Various species of 
Palaquium 


Habitat 

Indo-China and 
East Indies 


Styracece or Benzoin Family. — Shrubs or low trees. Leaves alter- 
nate to opposite, entire, often acuminate. Flowers hermaphrodite, 
regular, rarely sub-irregular, either in condensed fascicles or solitary 
in the axils of the leaves; sepals and petals typically five each; 
corolla often white, rarely pinkish or yellowish; stamens many to 
four or two, perigynous or sub-hypogynous; pistil bicarpillary or 
four to five carpellate. Fruit either fleshy or dry, often winged and 
rarely as many-celled as there are carpels. 


Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

_ , . . / Styrax Benzoin and East Indies 

Benzoinum Balsamic resin 1 , 

[ other species 

III. Order Contortae. — Oleacea or Olive Family.- — Shrubs {For- 
sythia, Chionanthus , Syringa, etc.) or trees ( Fraxinus , Olea, etc.) with 
stems possessing close white wood, and slightly swollen or enlarged 


TAXONOMY 


329 


nodes. Leaves opposite, decussate, simple, rarely pinnately com- 
pound (Ash). Inflorescence dichesial or scorpioid cymes but tending 
constantly toward condensation and so in the Lilac, the inflorescence 
becomes a clustered raceme of cymes (thyrsus). Flowers regular, 
pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals small, green, rarely petaloid, 
synsepalous; petals synpetalous, elongated into a narrow tube, ex- 
panding above into a stellate limb; stamens very rarely five, rarely 
four to three, nearly always two, epipetalous and high set on corolla 
tube; pistil bicarpellate, rarely of three to four carpels; ovary two- 
celled with two to one pendulous ovules in each cavity. Fruit 
either a capsule (Lilac), drupe (Olive), berry (Privet) or a winged 
indehiscent akene (Ash). Seeds with moderate to scanty albumen 
becoming occasionally exalbuminous. 


Official drug 
Manna 

Oleum Olivae 

Chionanthus N.F. 

Fraxinus N.F. 


Part used 

Dried saccharine 
exudate 
Fixed oil 

Bark of root 

Bark 


Botanical origin 

Fraxinus Ornus 

Olea Europsea 

Chionanthus 

virginica 

Fraxinus Americana 


Habitat 

Southern Europe 

Southern Europe, 
Algeria, Asia 
Southern United 
States 

Northern United 
States and 
Canada 


Loganiacece or Logania Family. — Herbs ( Spigelia , etc.), woody 
vines ( Gelsemium , etc.) or trees (. Strychnos Nux Vomica , etc.) with a 
bitter juice usually containing alkaloids. Stem, rarely herbaceous 
usually woody, often long climbing and rope-like {Gelsemium) , usually 
with a bicollateral bundle system. Leaves opposite, stipulate or 
exstipulate. Inflorescence racemose or cynrose {Spigelia (scorpioid 
cyme) , Strychnos) , sometimes condensed into solitary, axillary flowers. 
Flowers perfect, usually regular; calyx gamosepalous; corolla gamo- 
petalous, hypogynous, rotate, campanulate or infundibuliform; sta- 
mens inserted on the corolla tube or throat and with thread-like 
filaments; ovary superior, two-celled; style elongate with bifid stigma; 
ovules numerous. Fruit usually a capsule, septicidally dehiscent 
{Gelsemium sempervirens) or loculicidally dehiscent {Spigelia mari- 
landica), sometimes a berry {Strychnos Nux Vomica) or drupe. 
Seeds numerous or solitary, sometimes winged. 


330 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Fig. 180 . — Strychnos nux vomica — Flowering branch and seeds. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 

Nux Vomica 

Gelsemium 
Spigelia 
Ignatia N.F. 


Part used 

Seeds 

Rhizome and 
roots 

Rhizome and 
roots 
Seeds 


Botanical origin 

Strychnos Nux 
Vomica 
Gelsemium 
sempervirens 
Spigelia marilandica 

Strychnos Ignatii 


Habitat 

East Indies 

Southern United 
States 

Southern United 
States 

Philippine Islands 


TAXONOMY 


.331 


Gentianiacece or Gentian Family. — -Herbs often low-growing. Roots 
and short stems sometimes more or less thickened ( Gentiana lutea). 
Leaves opposite, decussate, entire, exstipulate. Inflorescence cymose 


Fig. 1 81 . — Gentiana lutea — Flowering head and dissected flower. (Sayre.) 

\ 

{Gentiana lutea) or condensing to a single solitary terminal flower 
{Gentiana verna , G. acaulis, etc.) Flowers regular, perfect, penta- 
merous or tetramerous, sepals five to four, green, more or less synse- 


332 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


palous, not infrequently everted or reflexed, corolla of five, rarely 
four petals, more or less synpetalous, in shape passing from open- 
stellate as in Gentiana lutea through many stages of connation to 
long-tubed as in Gentiana acaulis; stamens five, epipetalous; pistil 
bicarpellate; ovary one-celled or incompletely two-celled; style more 
or less elongated with bilobed to divided stigma. Fruit a capsule. 
Seeds albuminous. 


Official drug 

Gentiana 

Chirata N. F. 
Menyanthes N.F. 

Centaurium N.F. 

Unofficial 

Sabatia 


Part used 

Rhizome and 
roots 

Entire plant 
Leaves 

Flowering plant 

Herb 


Botanical origin 

Gentiana lutea 

Swertia Chirayita 
Menyanthes 
trifoliata 
Erythraea 
Centaurium 

Sabatia angularis 


Habitat 

Europe and Asia 
Minor 

Northern India 
Europe and Asia 

Europe 

Eastern United 
States and 
Canada 


A pocynacece or Dog Bane Family: — Herbs, rarely shrubs not infre- 
quently clambering or climbing in habit ( Allamanda ). Stem and 
branches show bicollateral bundles. Stem, leaves and flowers have 
latex tubes which ramify through the cortex and mesophyll tissues. 
Leaves alternate, opposite or verticillate, simple, entire, deciduous 
or evergreen. Inflorescence cymose. Flowers regular, pentamer- 
ous, rarely tetramerous; sepals five, gamosepalous, green, rarely sub- 
petaloid to petaloid; petals five, slightly to deeply gamopetalous, in 
shape varying from open tubular, stellate, to elongate tubular to 
elongate funnel-shaped, in color varying from greenish-yellow to 
white or from yellow to yellow-red to crimson to crimson-purple to 
nearly purple-blue; stamens five, epipetalous; pistil usually bicarpel- 
late; ovary two-celled with central placentation; style more or less 
elongate with terminal brush of hairs, knobbed or multifid; stigma 
circular band or circular spur beneath terminal style swelling. Fruit 
two follicles ( Apocynum , etc.), a berry, drupe, or capsule. Seeds 
flattened, frequently hairy, albuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


333 


Fig. 182 .—Strophanthus hispidus — Branch and seed with comose awn. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 
[ Strophanthus 

Habitat 

Strophanthus 

Seeds (deprived 
of awn) 

Kombe 

j Strophanthus 
l hispidus 

| Africa 
) 

Strophanthin 

Glucoside 

Srophanthus 

Africa 


hispidus 


Apocynum N.F. 

Rhizome and 

Apocynum 

United States and 


roots 

cannabinum 

Canada 

Aspidosperma 

Bark 

Aspidosperma 

Central and South 


Quebracho bianco 

America 


334 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Asclepiadacece or Milkweed Family. — Herbs or shrubs containing 
a milky juice, many species yielding rubber. Leaves entire, more 
or less fleshy, sometimes verticillate. Inflorescence usually a 
dichesial or scorpioid cyme. Flowers regular, pentamerous; sepals 
wooly, small, synsepalous; petals five, rarely four, synpetalous, elon- 
gated into awls; the corolla varying in shape from stellate to cam- 
panulate and in color from pale green to yellow, to greenish-brown, 
chocolate, or from white to yellow, to scarlet, to crimson, to purple, to 
blue; stamens five, epipetalous, fused in relation forming a cylindrical 
swollen mass around the central pistil; filaments flattened and 
furnished with a crown having various appendages; anthers two- 
celled, each cell containing a pollen mass (pollinium), adhering to the 
glandular prominences of the stigma; pistil bicarpellate, superior. 
Fruit typically two dry follicles {Asclepias), rarely becoming succu- 
lent or bladdery. Seeds numerous, compressed, imbricate with a 
comose appendage. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin 

Asclepias N.F. Roots Asclepias tuberosa 

Condurango N.F. Bark Marsdenia 

Condurango 

IV. Order Contort® or Polemoniales . — Convolvulacea or Morning- 
glory Family. — Frequently herbaceous, more rarely sub-woody, 
woody, perennial climbing plants with underground parts sometimes 
swollen into tuberous roots (Jalap, Sweet Potato, Wild Man of the 
Earth). Stems rarely short, upright or tufted, usually elongate 
and circumnutating in action. Vascular bundles frequently bi- 
collateral. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, varying from 
cordate to cordate-sagittal, to broad reniform to reniform, palmately 
lobed to palmatifid to palmately compound ( Ipomcea shows all these 
transitions). Stem and leaves frequently contain a dull, viscous, 
watery to milky-white juice. Inflorescence a scorpioid cyme be- 
coming reduced in some forms to a solitary flower. Flowers penta- 
merous; sepals five, green, gamosepalous; corolla varying in shape 
from rotate to funnel-like with expanded mouth, in color from 
greenish-yellow to white or through yellowish-pink to scarlet, 
crimson, purple or blue; stamens five, often with the bases of the fila- 


Habitat 

United States 
Peru and Ecuador 


TAXONOMY 


335 


merits expanded; pistil bicarpellate; ovary two-celled, superior, often 
surrounded by a nectar girdle; style filiform with bilobed or bifid 
stigma. Fruit usually a capsule ( Exogonium , etc.), dehiscing septi- 
fragally, rarely a berry. Seeds scantily albuminous to exalbuminous. 


Official drug 
Jalapa 


Part used 

Tuberous root 


Scammoniae Radix Root 


Unofficial 

Male Jalap Root 

Tampico Jalap Root 

Wild Jalap Root 

Turpeth Root Root 


Botanical origin 

Exogonium Purga 
Convolvulus 
Scammonia 


Habitat 

Mexico 
1 Asia Minor, 
j Greece, Syria 


Ipomcea orizabensis Mexico 

Ipomoea simulans Mexico 

Ipomoea pandurata United States 

Operculina Turpethum East Indies 


336 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Hydro phyllacece or Water Leaf Family.- — Annual, herbaceous, 
rarely perennial woody plants whose stems, branches, leaves and 
sepals are often viscous and glandular hairy. Leaves alternate, 
exstipulate, from simple linear to pinnatipartite to pinnate. Inflor- 
escence rarely expanded, usually scorpioid cymes. Flowers small 
to large, funnel-form in Eriodictyon calif ornicum; sepals five, green; 
petals five, regular; corolla varying from small stellate with slightly 
fused petals to large rotate, campanulate or tubular, in color varying 
from greenish-white or yellow to rarely white, often pink, purple 
or blue; stamens five, rarely with alternate staminodes; pistil bicar- 
pellate. Fruit a two-celled capsule dehiscing usually septicidally. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Eriodictyon Leaves Eriodictyon California and 

californicum New Mexico 


" Borraginacece or Borage Family.- — Herbaceous (Borraginece sub- 
family) or shrubby ( Heliotropece sub-family), plants forming a pri- 
mary root and a single or often branched shoots. Leaves often 
divisible into expanded, sometimes large basal and alternate scat- 
tered cauline leaves. Each of these simple, exstipulate, often hairy, 
rarely glabrous. Inflorescence a raceme of dichesial or scorpioid 
cymes, at times condensed into a dichesium of scorpioids or a simple 
scorpioid cyme. Flowers pentamerous, regular, passing to slight 
or marked irregularity ( Ecliium ) ; sepals five; green, slightly or deeply 
gamosepalous, often hairy; petals five, the corolla varying in shape 
from rotate with shallow tube ( Myosotis and Borage ), to tubular 
(Symphytum) , to funnel-shaped in most species, in color, all transi- 
tions frequently purple-blue to blue; stamens five; pistil bicarpellate, 
syncarpous, embryologically two-celled with two ovules in each 
cavity, but dorsal ingrowths divide ovary by time of flowering into 
four cells with one ovule in each cavity; style gynobasic. Fruit 
typically four-nutlets. Seeds solitary in each cavity and either 
scantily albuminous ( Heliotropece ) or exalbuminous ( Borraginece ). 


Unofficial 

Symphytum 

(Comfrey) 

Cynoglossum 

(Hound’s tongue) 


Part used 

Root 

Herb and root 


Botanical origin Habitat 

Symphytum officinale Europe and 

United States 

Cynoglossum United States 

officinale 


TAXONOMY 


337 


Solanacece or Nightshade Family . — Stem herbaceous rarely shrubby 
or arborescent, frequently with bicollateral bundles. Leaves alter- 
nate, exstipulate, entire, or more or less lobed, rarely compound; 
often glandular-hairy. Flowers in cymes; regular or rarely irregular 


(Petunia, Tobacco sps.), pentamerous, perfect, synphyllous; sepals 
green (rarely petaloid), rotate to tubular, usually persistent and 
accrescent; petals rotate (Solatium), to tubular (Atropa), to funnel- 
shaped (Tobacco), and so (i) open to all comers, or (2) to bees or 
22 


338 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


wasps, or (3) to butterflies, moths; color, greenish-yellow, or 
greenish-white, to white, to pink, crimson, purple, rarely blue; sta- 
mens five, epipetalous, hypogynous, along with style usually forming 
nectar glands. Filaments short to long, anthers dehiscing longi- 
tudinally or by apical pores; pistil bicarpellate, syncarpous, with 


or without nectar girdle, superior ovary, two-celled with central 
placentation, ovules numerous, style more or less elongate with 
bilobed or bifid stigma. Fruit, a capsule (Tobacco, Thornapple, 
Henbane) dehiscing longitudinally or transversely; ora berry (potato, 
egg-plant, tomato, red pepper). Seeds albuminous. 


TAXONOMY 


339 


Official drag 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

1 Central and 

Belladonnas Folia 

Leaves 

Atropa Belladonna | 

Southern Europe 

Belladonnas Radix 

Root 

Atropa Belladonna 

J 

Asia Minor and 
Persia 

Stramonium 

Leaves 

Datura Stramonium 
and D. Tatula 

Asia and Tropical 
America 

Hyoscyamus 

Leaves and 
flower tops 

FTyoscyamus niger 

Europe, Asia 

Solanum N.F. 

Ripe fruit 

Solanum carolinense 

United States 

Capsicum 

Fruit 

Capsicum frutescens 

Tropical America 

Dulcamara N.F. 
Unofficial 

Twigs and stems 

Solanum Dulcamara 

Europe and Asia 

Duboisia 

Leaves 

Duboisia myoporoides 


Tabacum 

Leaves 

Nicotiana tabacum 

Tropical America 

Scopola 

Rhizome 

Scopola Carniolica 

Alps and 
Carpathian Mts. 

Manaca 

Root 

Brunfelsia Hopeana 

Tropical America 

Paprika 

Fruit 

Capsicum annuum | 

America ? culti- 

Pimiento 

varieties 

vated 


Fruit 

Variety of Capsicum 
annuum 

Spain 


340 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Scorphulariacece or Figwort Family. — Herbs ( Linaria , Verbascum, 
Gerardia, Digitalis, etc.), shrubs (shrubby Veronicas, etc.), rarely 
trees ( Paulownia imperialis). Stem, branches and leaves usually 
green and independently vegetating, but in Pedicularis, Gerardia, 
Euphrasia, Buchner a, Rhinanthus, tic., the stem, leaves, and branches 
are condensed from the development of a parasitic root habit. Stems 
cylindrical to frequently quadrangular, especially when leaves are 
opposite. Leaves alternate to opposite and decussate, simple, 
exstipulate, often hairy but becoming by drought or parasiticism 
reduced to scales or almost absorbed. Inflorescence a raceme of 
cymes ( Paulownia ) or a simple raceme {Foxglove, Linaria, etc.) or 
spike {Verbascum Thapsus ) or, if leaves are opposite, often a whorl 
of axillary flowers or solitary axillary flowers. Flowers rarely regu- 
lar, mostly irregular; calyx of five sepals condensed in Veronica to 
four through absorption of one sepal by fusion of two sepals; corolla 
of five to four petals, deeply synpetalous varying from rotate {Ver- 
bascum Blattaria, etc.) to irregular tubular to elongate, irregular 
bilabiate to funnel-shaped. In color corolla varies from greenish 
to greenish-yellow or white ( Scrophularia ) to pure white or from red 
to purple to blue {Veronica) . Stamens five, fertile, equal in length 
in a few Verbascum species or unequal in other Verbascum species to 
stamens four with a long sterile staminode (. Pentstemon ) to four 
didynamous stamens with a short petaloid staminode {Scrophu- 
laria) to four didynamous stamens with a minute often nectariferous 
staminode {Linaria), to frequenty four didynamous stamens only, 
the two lateral or two anterior stamens stronger and longer {An- 
tirrhinum) to two perfect stamens and two minute staminodes {Cal- 
ceolaria) to two stamens alone developed {Veronica). Pistil 
bicarpellate; ovary two-celled with central placentation; style 
terminal with bilobed stigma; ovules numerous, small. Fruit a 
two-celled and usually many-seeded capsule. Seeds richly al- 
buminous, anatropous or amphitropous. 


Official drug 
Digitalis 
Leptandra N.F. 


Part used 

Leaves 
Rhizome and 
roots 


Botanical origin 

Digitalis purpurea 
Veronica virginica 


Habitat 

Europe 

United States and 
Canada 


TAXONOMY 


341 


Fig. 187 .' — Digitalis purpurea var. gloxinaefolia. 


342 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug 

Verbasci Flores 
N.F. 


Part used 

Corollas with 
stamens 


Verbasci Folia N.F". Leaves 


Botanical origin 

[ Verbascum 
I phlomoides 
| Verbascum 
l thapsiforme 
j Verbascum Thapsus 
j and other species of 
Verbascum 


Habitat 

] 

| Europe and Asia 
! Europe and Asia 


Pedalinacece or Sesame Family. — Tropical herbs often thickly 
covered with viscous hairs. Leaves soft, usually alternate, more 
rarely opposite, exstipulate. Flowers irregular, pentamerous. Fruit 
a capsule ( Sesamum , etc.) drupe or rarely a one-seeded indehiscent 
nut. Seeds exalbuminous usually. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Oleum Sesami Fixed oil Sesamum indicum Asia and Africa 

(cultivated varieties) 

Acanthacece or Acanthus Family. — Usually herbaceous ( Ruellia ), 
rarely sub-woody or woody plants, occasionally bushy in habit, con- 
taining cystoliths in the mesophyll or epidermal cells of the leaves 
and in the parenchyma of the roots and stems. Leaves opposite, 
more rarely whorled, entire, exstipulate. Inflorescence a raceme of 
condensed cymes becoming a simple raceme or spike, rarely con- 
densed into a solitary terminal inflorescence. Flowers hermaphro- 
dite, usually irregular; calyx five-cleft; corolla hypogynous, gamo- 
petalous, more or less bilabiate, funnel-form and composed of five 
sepals; stamens usually four ( Ruellia , etc.), occasionally reduced to 
two as in genus Dianthera, didynamous or diandrous, epipetalous; 
pistil bicarpellate; ovary two-celled, superior, with numerous cam- 
pvlotropal ovules; style terminal, filiform. Fruit a capsule contain- 
ing numerous curved seeds. The family is of pharmaceutic interest 
mainly because of Ruellia ciliosa, a pubescent perennial herb growing 
in the Eastern United States, whose rhizome and roots have fre- 
quently been admixed with or substituted for Spigelia. 

Labiatce (. Lamiacece ) • or Mint Family. — Herbs producing creeping 
runners that spread out and root at the nodes. Stems quadrangular, 
rarely cylindrical in outline. Leaves opposite, decussate, mainly 
petiolate; leaf margin nearly always serrate, dentate or crenate. 


TAXONOMY 


343 


Stems and leaves further characterized by the presence of glandular 
hairs containing aromatic volatile oil. These hairs consist of a 
short one-celled stalk and a head (gland) of six or eight cells. Inflo- 
rescence a raceme or spike of verticillasters (double dichesial cymes) 
or, as in the Ground Ivy, a reduced verticillaster. Flowers typically 


Fig. 188 . — Mentha piperita — Flowering branch. (Sayre.) 

pentamerous, rarely tetramerous; sepals five, synsepalous, ribbed 
and forming a tubular regular or irregular bilabiate (Scull cap, etc.) 
calyx whose upper lip is bifid and lower trifid; corolla of five to four 
gamopetalous petals, hypogynous, frequently two-lipped, the upper 
lip bifid, the lower trifid; stamens four, didynamous, rarely one pair 
alone fertile and the other pair reduced in some cases almost or 


344 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


quite to disappearing point ( Salvia and Monarda ); pistil bicarpellate, 
embryologically two-celled with two ovules in each cavity, becoming 
at time of flowering four-celled with one ovule in each cavity. Style 
embryologically terminal but, upon opening of flower, deeply gyno- 


basic, elongate, slender with two stigmatic surfaces. Fruit four 
nutlets enclosing as many exalbuminous seeds. 

Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Mentha Piperita 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Mentha piperita 

Europe 

Mentha Viridis 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Mentha spicata 

Europe 

Scutellaria N.F. 

Entire plant 

Scutellaria lateriflora 

United States and 
Canada 

Oleum Thymi 

Volatile oil from 
flowering plant 

Thymus vulgaris 

Southern Europe 

Oleum Rosmarini 

Volatile oil from 
fresh flowering 
tops 

Rosmarinus 

officinalis 

Mediterranean 

Basin 

Oleum Lavendulse 

Volatile oil from 
fresh flowering 
tops 

Lavendula vera 

Southern Europe 

Cataria N.F. 

Unofficial 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Nepeta Cataria 

Europe and Asia 

Salvia 

Leaves 

Salvia officinalis 

Southern Europe 

Marrubium 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Marrubium vulgare 

Europe and Asia 

Hedeoma 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Hedeoma pulegioides 

United States and 
Canada 

Herba Majoranae 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Origanum Majorana 

Mediterranean 

regions 

Collinsonia 

Rhizome and 

roots 

Collinsonia 

canadense 

United States 

Serphyllum 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Thymus Serphyllum 

Europe and Asia 

Melissa 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Melissa officinalis 

Southern Europe, 
Asia Minor 

Monarda 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Monarda punctata 

United States 

Origanum 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Origanum vulgare 

Europe, Asia and 
North Africa 

Hyssopus 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Hyssopus officinalis 

Southern Europe 


TAXONOMY 


345 


Verbenacece or Verbena Family. — Herbs ( Verbena sps.), shrubs 
( Clarodendron ), occasionally trees (Black Mangrove of Florida) 
having characters which averagely agree with the Labiatce. They 
are distinguished from the Labiatce mainly by being rarely scented, 
by their ilowers having five stamens and a terminal style, by their 
fruits being either drupes or berries and by the fact that their seeds 
while being typically exalbuminous, yet occasionally are slightly 
albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Verbena N.F. Overground por- Verbena hastata United States 

tion in flower 

V. Order Rubiales. — Rubiacece or Madder Family. — Herbs ( Gal- 
ium , Mitchella, etc.), shrubs ( Cephalanthus , etc.), or trees ( Cin- 
chona species) with fibrous roots, sometimes, as in Cephaelis Ipecacu- 
anha, annularly enlarged. Roots, stems and to a less extent leaves 
rich in varied alkaloids, some of medicinal value. Leaves opposite, 
entire, stipulate and interpetiolate. Inflorescence a raceme of 
dichesial cymes occasionally condensing to scorpioids. Flowers 
perfect, often dimorphic, pentamerous or tetramerous; sepals five 
{Cinchona, etc.) but four in Galium, small, green, subtended with 
other flowers by one or two or more enlarged petaloid bracts; petals 
five {Cinchona, etc.) to four in Galium, stellate, varying from shallow 
rotate to elongate tubular or funnel-shaped with stellate limbs; 
stamens five to four, epipetalous; pistil nearly always bicarpellate, 
rarely of five to four carpels; ovary inferior, two-celled with central 
placentation; styles either distinct with knob-shaped stigmas or style 
elongate, filiform ending in bilobed stigmas. Fruit varied, a capsule 
in Cinchona, a berry in Coffee, a drupe, or frequently as in Galium 
dry and splitting into nutlets; seeds albuminous, each with a curved 


embryo. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Cafieina 

Feebly basic 

Coffea arabica 

Eastern Africa 


principle 

| Cinchona Ledgeri- 
1 ana, C. Calisaya 

1 

Cinchona 

Bark 

| and hybrids of these 
withother Cinchona 

f South America 

1 

1 


l species 

1 


346 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


Official drug Part used 

Cinchona Rubra Bark 

CoHea Tosta N.F. Roasted seeds 


Botanical origin 

f Cinchona succirubra 
1 or its hybrids 
I Coffea arabica 
[ Coffea libcrica 


Habitat 

| South America 

} Eastern Africa 


Gambir 


Ipecacuanha 


Prepared ex- 
tract from de- 
coctions of leaves 
and twigs 


Ourouparia Gambir 


Root 


| Cephaelis 
j Ipecacuanha 
I Cephaelis acuminata 

I 


East Indies 

Brazil 

United States of 
Columbia 


Fig. 189 — Cephaelis ipecacuanha — Plant and dried root. (Sayre.) 


TAXONOMY 


347 


Capr'ifoliacecE or Honey Suckle Family. — Shrubs or rarely herbs. 
Leaves entire, opposite, exstipulate or with delicate, attenuate or 
filiform stipules. Inflorescence varying from a raceme of shortened 
cymes to a capitulum. Flowers varying from regular and small 
(. Sambucus , Viburnum, etc.) to increasingly large, slightly irregular 
and ultimately very irregular in some Loniceras and in a few Weige- 
las and allies; calyx pentamerous, superior; corolla superior, gamo- 
petalous, limb pentafid, small, in Viburnum and Sambucus to elon- 
gate, tubular or irregular infundibuliform in Loniceras; stamens 
five, inserted on tube of corolla and alternating with corolla seg- 
ments; filaments equal or didynamous (in irregular flowers); ovary 
inferior, rarely five- to three-celled, usually three- or frequently two- 
celled; style terminal. Fruit a berry ( Viburnum ) from an inferior 
ovary, several celled, occasionally becoming one-celled with several 
to rarely one seed, or fruit a capsule ( Diervilla , Weigelia). Seeds 
albuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 


Sambucus N.F. Flowers 


Viburnum 

Prunifolium 


Bark 


Viburnum Opulus Bark 


N.F. 


VI. Order Campanulales. — Cucurbitacece or Gourd Family. — Her- 
baceous, very often annual ( Colocynth , etc.), more rarely perennial 
{Bryonia, etc.), sometimes shrubby plants, the perennial and shrubby 
forms perennating by swollen roots some of which are heavy and 
tuberous. Stems very usually grooved and ridged, often provided 
with roughened and barbed hairs. Tendrils are frequently produced 
in the axils of leaves from tendril axillary buds (Pumpkin, Colocynth, 
Watermelon, Cucumber, Bryony, etc.). Leaves varying from 
entire, simple, usually deltoid to triangular through stages of trilo- 
bate, pentalobate, deeply palmatifid to palmatipartite to seldom ap- 
proaching compound (Colocynth). Venation in nearly all cases pal- 
mate. Leaves thin, herbaceous, much expanded, often hairy. Vas- 
cular bundles of petioles, branches and stems, bicollateral. Inflo- 


348 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


rescence either of loose cymes or more frequently of racemes or spikes 
or entire axillary inflorescence may become solitary axillary. Flow- 


ers pentamerous, very rarely 
tetramerous, monoecious ( Bryonia 
alba) or dioecious ( Bryonia 
dioica ); sepals five, gamosepalous, 
adnate to ovary; corolla of five, 
rarely four gamopetalous petals 
varying in size and shape from 
small to large campanulate or 
broadly cup-shaped (Cucumber) 
and in color from greenish-yellow 
to greenish white to pure yellow 
to yellowish- white to white; 
stamens typically five, epigynous, 
with anthers either joined by pairs 
or synantherous; carpels usually 
three; ovary inferior, one- to 
three-celled. Fruit a pepo (a berry 
from an inferior ovary with thick 
skin). Seeds flat and exalbuminous. 


Fig. 190. — Colocynth — Portion of vine 
and whole fruit. (Sayre.) 


Official drug 

Bryonia N.F. 

Colocynthis 

Pepo 

Elaterinum 

Unofficial 

Watermelon Seed 
Momordica (Bal- 
sam apple) 


Part used 

Root 

Pulp of fruit 
Seeds 

Principle from 
elaterium 


Botanical origin Habitat 


| Bryonia alba 
l Bryonia dioica J 
Citrullus Colocynthis 
Cucurbita Pepo 
(cultivated varieties) 
Ecballium Elaterium 


Europe 

Africa and Asia 
Tropics 

Mediterranean 

region 


Seeds Citrullus vulgaris Southern Asia 

Fruit Momordica East Indies 

Balsamina 


Campanulacece or Bluebell Family . — Herbs of annual or more com- 
monly perennial growth rarely sub-shrubby or sub-woody in habit, 
frequently with laticiferous tubes containing a milky juice. Stem 
upright or feeble and spreading. Leaves alternate, simple, "exstipu- 


TAXONOMY 


349 


late. Inflorescence primitively a racemose cyme condensing into a 
raceme, to a sub-capitulum and ultimately to a capitulum. Flowers 
regular, campanulate to campanulate-elongate to elongate and deeply 
cleft in petals; sepals five, only slightly synsepalous, epigynous; 
petals five, campanulate to campanulate-tubular to tubular elongate 
to tubular and deeply cleft; corolla varying in color from greenish- 
yellow to yellowish-white to white or again, from yellowish-purple 
(rarely through yellowish-pink or red) to purple to pure blue; 
stamens five, epigynous, usually free from corolla; nectary epigynous; 
pistil usually tricarpellary; ovary as many celled as number of carpels 
and with central placenta; style single elongate; stigmas as many as 
carpels. Fruit a capsule. Seeds albuminous. The plants contain 
inulin. 

LobeliacecB or Lobelia Family. — Herbs, with inulin and latex con- 
tents, corresponding with Campanulaceoe in their vegetative parts, 
but differing from that group by having irregular flowers (pale blue 
in Lobelia inflata), anthers always synantherous and pistil always 
bicarpellate with two-celled ovary and bilobed or bilabiate stigma. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Lobelia Leaves and Lobelia inflata United States and 

flowering tops Canada 

VII. Order Aggregate. — V alerianaceee or Valerian Family . — 
Herbaceous often low succulent plants with creeping rhizomes, fre- 
quently strongly scented and possessing stimulating properties. 
Leaves frequently dimorphic; radical fascicled; cauline opposite; 
petiole dilated, exstipulate. Inflorescence a raceme of dichesial or 
scorpioid cymes. Flowers more or less irregular; calyx absent as 
such but represented by a series of teeth that are incurved in the 
bud and flower and which expand later into a pappose crown and act 
in the fruit as a pappose disseminator; corolla pentamerous, gamo- 
petalous, varying from rotate synpetalous to irregular tubular with 
petals diversely united, in color varying from greenish-white to 
white or pink ( Valeriana officinalis ) to crimson; stamens three to 
two or one {Valerian), epipetalous; pistil syncarpous; ovary usually 
one-celled inferior; style filiform with three stigmatic surfaces. 


35 ° 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


TAXONOMY 


35 1 


Fruit an akene from inferior ovary crowned by a persistent ex- 
panded pappose calyx rudiment. Seeds anatropous, exalbuminous. 

Official drug Part used Botanical origin Habitat 

Valeriana Rhizome and Valeriana officinalis Europe and Asia 

roots 

Composites ( Asteracece ) or Daisy Family. — Herbs, rarely shrubs or 
trees, of annual or perennial habit, and with watery or milky juice. 


Fig. 192. — Capitulum of a composite Jerusalem artichoke ( Helianthus 
tuberosus). A, lengthwise section of capitulum, X 1 ; B, ray flower, X 6; C, disk 
flower, cut lengthwise, X 6. (A after Baillon, B and C, Robbins .) 

Inulin is present in cell sap of parenchyma. Leaves alternate, rarely 
opposite, simple to compound, exstipulate. Inflorescence a capitu- 
lum or a raceme of capitula, each capitulum surrounded by an in- 


352 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


volucre or protective whorl of bracts, and composed of numerous 
florets that may be: (a) wholly regular, tubular and hermaphrodite 
(Thistle, etc.); or (b) central florets as in (a), but marginals strap- 


Fig. 193 . — Matricaria chamomilla — Branch and dissected flowers. (Sayre) 

shaped or ligulate and usua’ly pistillate (Daisy, Dahlia, etc.); or 
(c) florets all ligulate and hermaphrodite (Dandelion, Chicory, etc.); 
or (d) florets in part or in whole bilabiate (Mutisia, etc.). Flowers 
small (florets) closely crowded, pentamerous, shaped as above, with 


TAXONOMY 


353 


ovary inferior and other floral parts superior. Sepals rudimentary 
tooth-like (Sunflower), or reduced to a pappose or hairy rudiment 
above ovary that is functionless during flowering, but that expands in 
fruit as a hairy fruit disseminator (Dandelion, Thistle, etc.); or 
sepals wholly absorbed (Daisy). Petals synpetalous, tubular, ligu- 
late or rarely bilabiate, greenish-yellow to white, or through pink- 
crimson and purple to blue (chicory). Stamens five, epipetalous, 
filaments distinct, anthers united into an upright anther-box (so 
synantherous) into which pollen is shed before or during opening 
of each floret. Carpels two, syncarpous, ovary inferior, one-celled 
with single ovule; style simple, at first short', later elongating and by 
collecting hairs sweeping pollen to top of anther box, then dividing 
into two stigmatic surfaces with stigmatic hairs for pollen reception. 
Fruit an indehiscent achene often (Dandelion, Thistle) crowned by 
the pappose, calyx rudiment. Seed single, exalbuminous. 


Official drug 

Part used 

Botanical origin 

Habitat 

Lactucarium 

Dried milk juice 

Lactuca virosa 

Europe 

Arnica 

Flower heads 

Arnica montana 

Europe and 
northern Asia 

Matricaria 

Flower heads 

Matricaria 

Chamomilla 

Europe and 
western Asia 

Calendula N.F. 

Ligulate florets 

Calendula officinalis 

Mediterranean 

basin 

Senecio N.F, 

Overground 

parts 

Senecio aureus 

United States 

Absinthium N.F. 

Leaves and 

Artemisia 

United States and 


flowering tops 

Absinthium 

Canada 

Eupatorium N.F. 

Leaves and 
flowering tops 

Eupatorium 

perfoliatum 

North America 

Grindelia 

Leaves and 

Grindelia camporum 

Western North 
America 


flowering tops 

Grindelia cuneifolia 
' Grindelia squarrosa 

Inula N.F. 

Rhizome and 

roots 

Inula Helenium 

Europe and Asia 

Taraxacum 

Rhizome and 

roots 

Taraxacum officinale 

Europe and Asia 

Echinacea N.F. 

Rhizome and 

Brauneria pallida 

Central United 


Pyrethrum 


roots 

Root 


States 

Anacyclus Pyrethrum Northern Africa 
and southern 
Europe 


23 


PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY 


354 


Official drug 

Lappa N.F. 


Farfara N.F. 
Santoninum 


Part used Botanical origin 

Root Arctium Lappa and 

other species of 
Arctium 

Leaves Tussilago Farfara 

Inner anhydride Artemisia pauciflora 
of santonic acid 


Habitat 

Europe and 
northern Asia 

Europe 

Russian 

Turkestan 


Unofficial 

Anthemis 
Pyrethri Flores 


Flower heads 
Flower heads 
(unexpanded 
or partly 
expanded) 


Anthemis nobilis 
Chrysanthemum 
cinerariifolium 
Chrysanthemum 
roseum 

Chrysanthemum 

Marschallii 


Europe 

Dalmatia 

Herzegovina 

Western Asia 


Fig. 194. — Chicory ( Cichorium Inlybus). A, portion of flowering branch; B, 
basal leaf (runcinate-pinnatifid) ; C, median longitudinal section through a 
head, showing the insertion of the flowers; D, individual flower; E, fruit (ripened 
ovary), showing the persistent pappus (calyx) of short scales. (Gager.) 


TAXONOMY 


355 


Official drug 

Santonica 

Carthamus 

Achillea 

Tanacetum 

Gnaphalium 

Cichorium 

Oleum Erigerontis 


Part used 

Unexpanded 
flower heads 
Tubular florets 
Leaves and 
flowering tops 
Leaves and 
flowering tops 
Leaves and 
flowering tops 
Rhizome and 
roots 

Volatile oil 


Botanical origin 

Artemisia pauciflora 

Carthamus tinctorius 
Achillea millefolium 

Tanacetum vulgare 

Gnaphalium 
polycephalum 
Cichorium Intybus 

Erigeron canadensis 


Habitat 

Russian 

Turkestan 

India 

Europe and Asia 
Europe 

North America 
Europe 

North America 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The following works have been consulted, and credit is due to the authors of 
the same: 

United States Pharmacopoeia IX. 

National Formulary IV. 

Le Maout and Decaisne: “Descriptive and Analytical Botany.” 

C. Stuart Gager: “Fundamentals of Botany.” 

William C. Stevens: “Plant Anatomy,” 3d Ed. 

Henry Kraeher: “Applied and Economic Botany.” 

Heinrich A. DeBary: “Comparative Anatomy of the Phanerogams and 
Ferns.” 

John W. Harshberger: “Mycology and Plant Pathology.” 

Joseph Y. Bergen and Bradley M. Davis: “Principles of Botany.” 
Benjamin M. Duggar: “Plant Physiology.” 

K. Goebel: “Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology.” 

Henry H. Rusby: “Manual of Botany.” 

A. L. Winton: “Microscopy of Vegetable Foods.” 

Robert Bentley and Henry Trimen: “Medicinal Plants” (4 vols.). 
Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper: “Lehrbuch der Botanik.” 

A. Engler und K. Prantl: “Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien.” 

Mary L. Creighton: “Elements of Botany and Pharmacognosy.” 

Edson S. Bastin: “College Botany.” 

Wilfred W. Robbins: “Botany of Crop Plants.” 

Lucius E. Sayre: “Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy,” 4th Ed. 
Coulter, Barnes and Cowles: “A Text Book of Botany.” 

Albert Schneider: “Pharmaceutical Bacteriology.” 

Benjamin L. Robinson and Merrit L. Fernald: “Gray’s New Manual of 
Botany.” 

F. O. Bower: “Practical Botany.” 

Palladin: “Plant Physiology.” 


356 


INDEX 


Abies, 243 
Abies balsamea, 244 
excelsa, 244 
Abrus precatorius, 292 
Absinthium N. F., 353 
Acacia, 59 

Catechu, 292 
Senegal, 291 
Acajou Gum, 304 
Acanthaceae, 342 
Acer, 307 

spicatum, 307 
Aceraceae, 307 
Achillea millefolium, 355 
Aconiti Folia, 275 

Aconitine, micro-chemic test for, 54 
Aconitum Napellus, 273 
Acorus calamus, 249, 250 
Acrasiales, 3 
Actaea, 273 

Actinomyces Myricarum, 95, 261 
Adhesion, 143 
Adnation, 143 
Adonis N. F., 275 
vernalis, 275 
jfScidium, 220 
JEgle Marmelos, 299 
Aerogens, 174 
^Ethallia, 185 
Agar, 195 
Agaricaceae, 223 
Agaricales, 222 
Agaricus, 223 

campestris, 223 
Fig. of, 224 

Agathis loranthifolia, 244 
Agave americana, 47 


Agavose, 46 
Aggregatae, 349 
Aggregation-body, 128 
Agropyron repens, 248 
Ailanthus Family, 299 
Akene, 164 
Albugo, 199 
Albumen, 169 

endospermic, 169 
mode of formation, 169 
perispermic, 169 
perispermic and endospermic, 
169 

Albumens, 57 
Alburnum, 113 
Alcannin, 66 
Alectoria, 230 
Aletris farinosa, 252 
Aleurone grains, 58 
Alga-like Fungi, 196 
Algae, blue green, 182 
brown, 192 
green, 186 
red, 194 
siphon, 191 

Alkaloids, definition of, 52 
examples of, 53 
properties of, 52, 53 
Allamanda, 332 
Allium, 252 

sativum, 252 

Allyl-iso-sulphocyanide, 64 
Aloe, 145, 250, 252 
ferox, 252 
Perryi, 252 
vera, 252 

Alpinia officinarum, 255 


3S7 


INDEX 


358 

Althrea Flores, 313 
Folia, 313 
officinalis, 313 
rosea, 313 

Amanita muscaria, 224 
Fig. of, 225 
phalloides, 225 
Fig. of, 226 
Amber, 244 
Ament, 139 
Ammoniacum, 325 
Amygdala, 169 
Amara, 289 
Amygdalin, 64 
Amylum, 248 
Anacardiaceae, 304 
Anacardium, occidentale, 304 
Anacyclus Pyrethrum, 353 
Andreaeales, 234 
Andrcecium, 147 
Andromeda, 326, 327 
Anemone Ludoviciana, 275 
pratense, 275 
Pulsatilla, 275 
Anemonella, 273 
Anethol, 325 

Angelica Archangelica, 325 
Fructus N. F., 325 
Radix N. F., 325 
Angiospermae, 245 
Aniline sulphate, 66 
Anisum, 325 
Annatto, 316 
Annual ring, 108 

thickening, 107, 108 
Annulus, 19, 20, 224, 240 
Anthemis nobilis, 354 
Anther, 147 

adnate, 152 
attachment of, 152 
dehiscence, 150 
development of, 151 
Fig. of, 150 
gross structure of, 149 
histology of, 149 


Anther, innate, 152 
lobes, 149 
syngenesious, 148 
versatile, 152 
Antheridia, 192, 194, 235 
Anthoceros, 232 
Anthocerotales, 232 
Anthocyanins, 62 
Anthophore, r43 
Anthotaxy, 136, 139 
Antipodals, 159 
Antirrhinum, 340 
Apetalas, 259 
Apii Fructus, 325 
graveolens, 325 
Apocynaceae, 332 
Apocynum, cannabinum, 333 
Apothecia, 229 
Apothecium, 204 
Applied Botany, definition, 2 
Apposition, growth by, 65 
Appressorium, 197 
Araceae, 249 
Arales, 249 
Aralia N. F., 324 
hispida, 323 
nudicaulis, 323, 324 
racemosa, 324 
spinosa, 323, 324 
Araliaceae, 323 
Arbutus unedo, 326 
Archegonia, 235 
Archegonium, defined, 231 
Archichlamydeae, 258 
Arctium Lappa, 354 
Arctostaphylos, 326, 327 
Uva Ursi, 327, 328 
Areca catechu, 248 
nut, 248 

Arenga saccharifera, 46 
Aril, 169 
Arillode, 169 
Arisasma triphyllum, 249 
Aristolochia, Fig. of, 268 
reticulata, 269 


INDEX 


359 


Aristolochia, serpentaria, 269 
sipho, 101, 105 
Arnica, 353 

montana, 353 
Artemisia Absinthium, 353 
pauciflora, 354, 355 
Arum Family, 249 
Asafcetida, 325 
Asagraea officinalis, 252 
Asarum N. F., 269 
flower of, 268 
Asci, 209, 214 
Asclepiadacese, 334 
Asclepias tuberosa, 334 
Ascobolus, 204 
Ascocarp, 213 
Ascomycetes, 199 
Ascospores, 199, 209 
of claviceps, 214 
Ascus, 199 
Ash, 329 
Asparagine, 54 
Asparagus, 251 
Aspergillus, 204 
fumigatus, 210 
glaucus, 208 
herbariorum, 208 
niger, 210, 21 1, 212 
oryzae, 209, 210, 21 1 
Aspidium. See Dryopteris. 
Aspidosperma quebracho-bianco, 333 
Assimilation, defined, 116 
parenchyma, 69 
Asteraceae, 351 
Astragalus gummifer, 291 
Atriplex, 271 
Aurantiaceas, 298 
Aurantii Dulcis Cortex, 298 
Amari Cortex, 298 
Auriculariales, 220 
Austrian Pine, Fig. of cones, 26 
Autobasidiomycetes, 220 
Auxospore, 190, 191 
Awn, 168 
Azalea, 150 


Azalea, amena, 148 
apples, 221 
Azolla, 241 

Bacca, 165 

Bacilli, disease producing, 179 
types of, 175 
Bacillus, 176 
Bacteria, 174 

chemical composition of, 178 
classification according to form, 
175, 176, 177 
disease producing, 179 
forms of cell groups after cleav- 
age, 178 

morphology due to cleavage, 177, 
178 

mounting and staining of, 179-182 
physical appearance of, 174, 175 
rapidity of multiplication, 178 
reproduction of, 177 
Bacteriaceae, 175 
Bacterioids, 94 
Bacterium, 176 
Balansia claviceps, 215 
Balsam Apple, 348 
Balsamum Peruvianum, 291 
Tolutanum, 291 
Balsams, 60, 61 
Baptisia tinctoria, 292 
Barberry Family, 273 
Bark, 108 

cross-section through root- bark of 
Enonymus purpureus, 306 
Barosma, 297 

betulina, 298, 299 
serratifolia, 299 
Basidiomycetes, 214 
Basidiospore, 214 
Basidium, 214 
Bast, fibers, 71 
hard, 105 
soft, 105 

Bayberry Family, 261 
Beech Family, 26s 


3 6 ° 


INDEX 


Beet, 271 
Beggiatoa, 177 
Beggiatoaceae, 177 
Belae Fructus, 299 
Belladonnas Folia, 339 
Radix, 339 
Berberidaceae, 275 
Berberis N. F., 275 
Beta, 271 

vulgaris, 272 
var. Rapa, 248 
Betula lenta, 265 
Betulaceae, 265 
Bifacial leaf blade, 134 
Birch Family, 265 
Birthwort Family, 268 
Bistorta, 270 
Bittersweet, 339 
Bixa Orellana, 316 
Bixaceae, 316 
Black Mangrove, 345 
Blackberry, 286 
Black Mold, 196, 197 
Bloodroot, 280 
Blue Green Alga, 182 
Bluebell Family, 348 
Boletus, 222, 223 
edulis, 47, 64 
Borage Family, 336 
Borraginaceae, 336 
Boswellia carterii, 300 
Botany, defined, 1 

departments of inquiry, 1, 2 
Bottom yeast, 201, 203 
Bract, 137 
Bracteolar leaf, 138 
Brassica napus, 283 
nigra, 64, 283 
Brauneria pallida, 353 
Brayera, 286 
Brewer’s yeast, 200 
Bridal wreath, 286 
Bromelin, 64 
Brooksilk, 188 
Brown Algae, 192 


Brunfelsia Hopeana, 339 
Brunnichia, 269 
Bryales, 234 
Bryonia alba, 347, 348 
dioica, 347, 348 
Bryophyta, 231 
outline of, 3 
Buchnera, 340 
Buckthorn Family, 307 
Buds, 96 

accessory, 97 
adventitious, 97 
alternate, 97 
axillary, 97 
classifications of, 97 
flower, 97 
leaf, 97 
mixed, 97 
naked, 96 
scaly, 96 
whorled, 97 
Bulb, defined, 100 
tunicated, 100 
scaly, 100 
Burseraceae, 299 
Butomus, 149 
Buttercup Family, 272 

Cacao Praeparatum N. F., 331 
Cactaceae, 317 
Cactus Family, 317 
grandiflorus, 289 
Caffeine, 314, 345 

micro-chemic test for, 53 
Calamus, 249 
Calamus Draco, 248 
Calceolaria, 147, 340 
Calcium oxalate, types of crystals, 55 
56 

Calendula officinalis, 353 
Callus, 66 

Callitris quadrivalvis, 244 
Caltrop Family, 297 
Calumba, 276 
Calyptra, 16, 236 


9 


INDEX 


361 


Calyptrogen, 67 
Calyx, bilabiate, 143 
caducous, 144 
campanulate, 143 
chorisepalous, 143 
deciduous, 144 
defined, 143 
epigynous, 144 
gamosepalous, 143 
half-superior, 144 
hypocrateriform, 143 
hypogynous, 144 
inferior, 144 
irregular, 143 
perigynous, 144 
persistent, 144 
regular, 143 
rotate, 143 
superior, 144 
Cambogia, 314 
Cammeliaceae, 314 
Campanulaceje, 348 

placentation in, 156 
Campanulales, 347 
Camphora, 280 

Cane sugar, micro-chemic test for, 
46 

Canella N. F., 315 
Winterana, 315 
Canellaceae, 315 
Cannabis sativa, 56 
var. indica, 267 
Capitulum, 139 
Caprifoliaceae, 347 
Capsicum annuum, 339 
frutescens, 339 
Capsule, 163 

histology of a, 166 
Carcerulus, 163 
Cardamomii Semen, 255 
Carica Papaya, 317 
Caricaceae, 317 
Carina, 145 
Carnauba wax, 248 
Carotin, 61 


Carpel, defined, 154 
Carpophore, 143, 164 
Carragheen, 195 
Carthamus tinctorius, 355 
Carum Carvi, 325 
Caruncle, 168 
Carya, 265 
Caryophyllus, 323 
Caryopsis, 164, 248 
Cascara Sagrada, 307 
Cascarilla, 303 
Cassia acutifolia, 291, 292 
angustifolia, 292 
Fistula, 292 
Cassia buds, 280 
Castanea, 265 

dentata, 54, 265 
Castilloa, 62 
Cataria N. F., 344 
Catechu, 292 

Cathartocarpus fistula, 292 
Catkin, 139 
Caulicle, 85 
Caulophyllum, 275 
thalictroides, 275 
Cedrella, 301 
Celandine, latex of, 62 
Celastraceae, 304 
Celastrus, 304, 305 
Cell formation and reproduction, 41 
resting stage of, 43 
sap, 39 
Cell walls, 64 

behavior of, to micro-chemic re 
agents, 66 

growth in area and thickness, 65 
Cells, epidermal-daughter, 135 
neighboring, 134 
subsidiary, 134 
stoma-mother, 135 
Cellulose, 38, 66 
fungous, 200 

mucilaginous modification of, 66 
reserve, 66 
Celsia, 147 


362 


INDEX 


Centaurium, 332 
Centrospermae, 270 
Cephaelis acuminata, 346 
Ipecacuanha, 345, 346 
Cephalanthus, 345 
Cereus giganteus, 317 
grandiflorus, 318 

Cerevisiae Fermentum Compressum, 
203 

Cetraria islandica, 230, 231 
Chlaza, 155 

Chamaelirium luteum, 252 
Chara, 191, 192 
Characeae, 191 
Charales, 191 
Chaulmoogra oil, 316 
Chelidonium majus, 281 
Chenopodiaceae, 270 
Chenopodiales, 270 
Chenopodium, 271, 272 
anthelminticum, 272 
Cherry, 286 
Cherry gum, 59 
Chicory, 352, 353, 354 
Chimaphila, 326 
umbellata, 327 
Chinese Galls, 304 
Chionanthus, 328 
virginiana, 329 
Chionanthus N. F., 329 
Chlamydobacteriaceae, 1 76 
Chlamydospores, 214, 218 
Chlorenchyma, 69 
Chlorophyceae, 186 
Chlorophyll, 61 
Chlorophyllin, 61 
Chloroplastids, 40 
Chlor-zinc-iodine, 66 
Chondodendron tomentosum, 276 
Chondrus crispus, 194^195 
Choripetalae, 259 
Chromatophores, 40 
Chromophyll, 61 
parenchyma, 69 
Chromoplastids, 41 


Chromatin, 40, 43 
Chromogens, 174 
Chromosomes, 43 

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, 354 
Marschalii, 354 
roseum, 354 
Chrysarobinum, 292 
Cichorium, 355 

Intybus, 334, 355 
Cilium, 185 
Cimicifuga, 275 
racemosa, 275 
Fig. of, 274 
Cinchona, 345 
Calisaya, 345 
Ledgeriana, 345 
Rubra, 346 
succirubra, 346 
Cinnamomum Burmanii, 280 
Camphora, 280 
Cassia, 280 
Loureirii, 280 
Saigonicum, 280 
Zeylanicum, 279, 280 
Cinquefoil, 286 
Cistaceae, 317 
Citrullus colocynthis, 348 
vulgaris, 348 
Citrus Aurantium, 297 
amara, 298, 299 
Bergamia, 299 
sinensis, 298 
medica Limomum, 298 
acida, 299 
Clarodendron, 345 
Class, 2 

Classification, principles of, 2, 3 
Clavaria flava, 221 
Clavariales, 221 

Claviceps purpurea, life history of, 
214, 215 
Clematis, 272 
Clitandra, 62 

Close fertilization, prevention of, 158 
Clove, 320, 322 


INDEX 


363 


Clove Bark, 280 
Club Mosses, 236 
Coalescence, 142 
Coca, 296 
Coca Family, 296 
Cocaine, 53, 54, 296 
Coccaceae, 175 
Coccoloba platyclada, 269 
uvifera, 269 
Cocculus, 276 
Cocillana, 301 
Cocoanut oil, 248 
fruit, 248 

Cocos nucifera, 46, 248 
Coenocyte, 191 
Colfea arabica, 345, 346 
liberica, 346 
Coffea Tosta N. F., 346 
Coffee, 345 
Cohesion, 142 
Cola Family, 309 
Cola acuminata, 31 1 
Colchici Cormus, 251 
Semen, 252 

Colchicum autumnale, 251, 252 

Colchicine, micro-chemic test for, 54 

Colocynth, 347, 348 

Collenchyma, 70 

Collinsonia, 344 

Columella, 198 

Columnar crystals, 55 

Coma, 168 

Combretaceae, 323 

Combretum sundaicum, 323 

Comfrey, 336 

Commiphora, 300 

Commiphora myrrha, branch of, 301 
Companion cells, 78 
Compositae, 351 
inulin in, 51 
Compressed yeast, 203 
Conceptacles of Fucu, S19 
Conducting parenchyma, 69 
Conducting tissues, 84 
Condurango, 334 


Cone, 165 
Confervales, 186 
Conidia, 206 
Conidiospores, 206 
Coniferae, 243 

Coniferin, micro-chemic test for, 52 
Coniferales, 242 
Conifer, 242 

Conium maculatum, 325 
Conjugates, 188 
Conjugation, 43 
Connation, 142 
Connective, 147, 149 
Contortae, 328 
Convallaria majalis, 253 
Convallariae Radix, 252 
Flores, 252 
Convolvulaceae, 334 
Convolvulus Scammonia, 335 
Copaiba, 292 
Copernicia cerifera, 248 
Coptis N. F., 275 
trifoliata, 275 
Corallin-soda solution, 66 
Coriandrum, 325 
Cork, defined, 75 

Cork cambium, origin in roots, 90 
origin in stems, 104 
Cork formation in roots, 90 
in stems, 104 
Corm, 100 

Corn, inflorescence of, 247 
smut, 217 
Cornaceae, 325 
Cornus N. F., 326 
Cornus canadensis, 325 
florida, 325, 326 
sanguinea, 325 
Corolla, defined, 145 
apopetalous, 145 
campanulate, 146 
carophyllaceous, 147 
choripetalous, 145 
crateriform, 146 
cruciform, 145 


364 


INDEX 


Corolla, gamopetalous, 145 
hypocrateriform, 146 
labiate, 146 
ligulate, 146 
infundibuliform, 146 
papilionaceous, 145 
ringent, 146 
rotate, 146 

Correa grandiflora, 298 
Corymb, 138 
Corynebacterium, 176 
Coto, 280 

Cotyledons, 85, 1 17 
Cremocarp, 164 
Crenothrix, 177 
Cribiform tissue, 77 
Crocus sativus, 252 
Croton Eluteria, 303 
tiglium, 303 
Crude sap, 17, 78 
Crystal fibers, 55, 56 
Cubeba, 260 
Cucumber, 347 
Cucurbitaceae, 347 
Cudbear, 230 
Culm, 99 
Cuoxam, 66 
Cuphea, 319 
Cupuliferae, 265 
Curcuma N. F., 255 
Curcuma longa, 255 
Zedoaria, 255 
Cutin, 1 14 
Cyanophyceae, 182 
Cycas revoluta, 242 
Cydonia vulgaris, 289 
Cydonium, 289 
Cyme, 139 

Cynoglossum officinale, 336 
Cypripediae, 256 
Cypripedium N. F., 257 
hirsutum, 257 
parviflorum, 257 
Cystolith, 56 
Cytisus scoparius, 292 


Cytology, 1, 38 
Cytoplasm, 38, 40 
Cytoplasmic caps, 43 

Dacromyces deliquescens, 220 
Dacromycetaceae, 220 
Dacromycetales, 220 
Dahlia, 352 
Daisy, 352, 353 
Daisy Family, 351 
Damiana, 316 
Dammar, 244 
Dandelion, 352, 353 
Daphne Gnidium, 319 
Laureola, 319 
Mezereum, 318, 319 
Date Palm, 248 
Datura Stramonium, 339 
Tatula, 339 
Decadon, 319 

Dehiscence, apical porous, 150 
in fruits, 161 
longitudinal anther, 150 
transverse, 151 
valvular, 150 
Delphinium, T44 
Ajacis, 275 
consolida, 275 
Staphisagria, 275 
Delphinium N. F., 275 
Dermatogen, 67, 68 
Desmidacese, 188 
Deutzia, 72 
Dextrose, 46 
Dianthera, 342 
Diastase, 63 
Diatomaceae, 190 
Diatomales, 190 
Diatoms, 190 

Dicotyl Plant, morphology of type, 258 
Dicotyl Seed, gross structure of, 172 
Dicotyledoneae, characteristics of, 257, 
258 

Dictyophora duplicata, 228 
Dicypellium carophyllatum, 280 


INDEX 


365 


Diervilla, 347 

Differences between Gymnosperms and 
Angiosperms, 36, 37 
Digitalis, 340 

purpurea, 340 
var. gloxinaefolia, 341 
Digitoxin, micro-chemic test for, 52 
Dionaea, 283 
Dioscorea, 252 
villosa, 252 
Dioscoreaceae, 252 
Dittany, 298 
Division, 2 

Dog Bane Family, 332 
Dogwood Family, 325 
Dog’s Tooth Violet, life history of, 32- 
36 

Dorema Ammoniacum, 323 
Dorsoventral Leaf blades, 130-132 
Dragon’s Blood, 248 
Drimys Winteri, 272 
Drosera, 283, 284 
longifolia, 284 
intermedia, 284 
rotundifolia, 284 
Droseraceae, 283 
Drupe, 165 

Dryopteris Filix-mas, alternation of 
generations in, 23 
comparative physiology of root, 
stem and leaf, 18 
gross structure of stem, 13 
sori and sporangia, 19 
growth of seedling into mature 
sporophyte, 23 
histology of growing apex, 15 
lamina, 17 
mature root, 16 
stem, 13 
r.oot apex, 16 
sori and sporangia, 19 
stipe, 17 

history of gametophyte genera- 
tion, 20-22 

sporophyte generation, 13-20 


Dryopteris Filix-mas, origin of new 
sporophyte or diploid plant 
from fertilized egg, 23 
vascular bundles of, 15 
Dryopteris marginalis (frontispiece), 

13 

Duboisia, myoporoides, 339 
Dulcamara, 339 
Duramen, 113 

Ear fungi, 220 
Earth Tongues, 213 
Ebenales, 328 
Ecballium Elaterium, 348 
Echinaceae, 353 
Echinocactus, 317 
Echinocereus, 317 
Echium, 336 
Ecology, 1 
Economic Botany, 2 
Ectocarpus siliculosus, 192 
Ectoplasm, 18 
Egg Plant, 338 

Ehrlich’s Anilin Water Gentian Vio- 
let, 181 

Elaeis guineensis, 248 
Elastica, 303 
Elaterinum, 348 
Elettaria Cardamomum, 255 
Elm Family, 265 
Embryo, 85 
Embryo-sac, 155 

maturation of, 159 
Emulsion, 64 
Endocarp, 160 
Endodermis, 75 
Endospores, 197 
Endosporium, 19 
Endothecium, 

Enzyme, 62 
Enzymes, 62, 63, 64 
Epicalyx, 144 
Epicarp, 160 
Epidermis, 71, 72, 73 
Epithelium, 84 


366 


INDEX 


Equatorial plate, 45 
Equisetineae, 56, 237 
Equisetum, 238 
arvense, 239 
Erica, 326 
Ericaceae, 326 
Ericales, 326 
Erigeron canadensis, 355 
Eriodictyon californicum, 336 
Eriogonum, 269 

Erythronium Americanum, life history 
of, 32-36 

Erythroxylaceas, 296 
Erythroxylon Coca, 296 
Eschscholtzia, 280 
Etaerio, 165 
Etiolin, 62 
Etiology, 2 
Eucalyptol, 323 
Eucalyptus, 323 

globulus, 321, 323 
Kino, 323 
rostrata, 323 

Eugenia aromatica, 322, 323 
Eugenol, 323 
Euonymus N. F., 305 
Americanus, 304 
atropurpureus, 305 
Europaeus, 304 
Eupatorium, 353 

perfoliatum, 353 
Euphorbia, 62 

Pilulifera, 303 
Euphorbiaceae, 303 
Euphrasia, 340 
Eurotium, 208 
Exoascus, 200 
Exobasidiales, 221 
Exogonium Purga, 335 
Exosporium, 19, 152 
Exothecium, 149 

Fabaceae, 289 
Fagaceae, 265 
Fagales, 265 


Fagot Cassia, 280 
Family, 2 

Farfara, N. F., 334 
Fats, 59, 60 
Fatsia horrida, 323 
Ferment, 62 
Ferments, 62 

carbohydrate, 63 
fat and oil, 64 
glucoside, 64 
proteinaceous, 64 
Fern, antheridium, 21 22 
apical cell, 20 
archegonium, 21 
foot of, 241 
prothallium, 21 
sperms of, 22 
Ferns, 238 
true, 241 
water, 241 
Fern Palms, 242 
Fertilization, 43 

in angiosperms, 159 
cross, 158 
self, 158 

Ferula, Asafoetida, 325 
foetida, 325 
galbaniflua, 325 
Sumbul, 325 

Fibro-vascular bundles, definition, 8 
bicollateral, 82 
closed collateral, 81, 82 
concentric, 82 
open, 82 
radial, 83 
Ficus N. F., 267 
Carica, 267 
elastica, 62 
Filament, 147 

gross structure of, 148, 149 
histology of, 149 
F'licales, 241 
Filicineae, 238 
Fission, 42 
Fistulina, 223 


INDEX 


367 


Fixed oils, 59, 60 
Flax, 295 

Floral diagrams, 251 
Flower, complete, 141 
diandrous, 147 
dichlamydeous, 143 
double, 142 
hermaphrodite, 142 
h'exandrous, 147 
imperfect, 142 
liliaceous, 146 
monochlamydeous, 143 
neutral, 142 
orchidaceous, 145 
perfect, 142 
pentandrous, 147 
pistillate, 142 
polyandrous, 147 
regular, 142 
stalk, 137 
staminate, 142 
symmetrical, 142 

Fceniculum, histology of mericarp, 167 
vulgare, 325 
Foenum graecum, 292 
Foliage leaves, 117 
Follicle, 162 
Fomes, 223 
Forestry, 2 

Formation of male gametophyte, 158, 
159 

female gametophyte, 159 
Forsythia, 328 
Fothergilla, 285 
Fovilla, 34 
Foxglove, 340 
Fragaria, 144 
Frangula, 307 
Fraxinus, 328 

Americana, 329 
Ornus, 46, 329 
Free cell formation, 42 
Frond, 239 
Fructose, 46 

Fruit, classification of, 161-166 


Fruit, definition, 160 
structure, 160 
Fruits, achenial, 162 
aggregate, 162 
baccate, 162 
capsular, 162 
drupaceous, 162 
multiple, 162 
schizocarpic, 162 
simple, 161 

Fucus vesiculosus, description of, 194 
Fig. of, 193 

Fundamental considerations, 1-13 
tissue, 69 
Fungi, 195 

Funtumia africana, 62 
elastica, 62 

Galanga, 255 
Galbalus, defined, 165 
Galbanum, 325 
Galea, 144 
Galega N. F., 292 
officinalis, 292 
Galium, 345 
Galla, 265 
Galls, Chinese, 304 
Japanese, 304 
Gambir, 346 
Gamboge family, 314 
Gamete, 42, 189, 193 
Gametophyte, generation of Male 
Fern, 20-22 
Gamopetalae, 326 
Garcinia Hanburyi, 3x4, 315 
Gasteromycetes, 226 
Gaultherase, 64 
Gaultheria, 327, 328 

procumbens, 64, 328 
Gaultherin, 64 
Gaylussacia, 326 
Geaster, 226 
Gelidium, 195 
Gelsemium, 329 

sempervirens, 330 


INDEX 


368 

Gemmae, 232 
Gemmation, 42, 202 
Gentiana, 332 

acaulis, 331, 332 
lutea, 331, 332 
verna, 331 
Gentianaceae, 331 
Genus, 2 

Geological Botany, defined, 2 
Geraniales, 292 
Geranium, 293, 294 
maculatum, 294 
Geranium Family, 292 
Gerardia, 340 

Germination, 171 . 

Gesneria, placentation in, 156 
Geum, 143, 144 
Gigartina mamillosa, 194, 195 
Gills of mushrooms, 223 
Ginger, absence of lignin in scleren- 
chyme fibers of, 70, 71 
Family, 253 
Fig. of plant, 254 
Ginkgoales, 4 
Ginseng Family, 323 
Glands, internal, 84 
Gians, 164 
Gloeocapsa, 182, 183 
Gliadins, 57, 58 
Globoid, 58 
Gloiopeltis, 195 
Glomerule, 139 
Gloxinia, 156 
Gluco-alkaloids, 54 
Glucosides, characteristics of, 52 
Glutelins, 57 
Glycyrrhiza, 292 
glabra, 290, 292 
glandulifera, 292 
Gnaphalium polycephalum, 355 
Gnetales, 4 
Gonophore, 143 
Goosefoot Family, 270 
Gossypii Cortex N. F., 313 
Gossypium, 31 1, 313 


Gourd, 165 
Gourd Family, 347 
Gracilaria lichenoides, 195 
Grain, 164 
Graminales, 247 
Gramineae, 247 
silica in, 56 
Gram’s method, 180 
Granati Fructus Cortex, 320 * 

Granatum, 320 
Grape Family, 307 
Grass Family, 247 
Greenbrier, 115 
Green felt, 191 
Grindelia camporum, 353 
cuneifolia, 353 
squarrosa, 353 
Gross anatomy, defined, 1 
Ground Ivy, 343 
Gruinales, 292 
Guaiaci Lignum, 297 
Guaiacum officinale, 297 
sanctum, 296, 297 
Guarana, 306 
Guard cells, 135 
Guarea Rusbyi, 301 
Gums, 58, 59 
Gutta Percha, 62, 328 
Guttiferae, 314 
Gyncecium, 154 

apocarpous, 154 
syncarpous, 154 
Gynophore, 143 

Gymnosperm, life history of a, 24 
Gymnospermae, 241 

Haas and Hill, 63 
Habitat, defined, 1 
Haematoxylon, 291 
Hagenia, abyssinica, 286 
Hairs, barbed, 73 
branched, 73 
candelabra shaped, 72 
clavate, 72 
climbing, 74 


INDEX 


369 


Hairs, glandular, 73 
hooked, 73, 74 
multicellular, 72 
non-glandular, 72 
root, 74, 86 
stellate, 72 
stinging, 74 
unicellular, 72 
Haloxylon, 271 
Hamamelidaceae, 285 
Hamamelidis Folia, 286 
Hamamelis virginiana, 286, 287 
Hancornia, 62 
Hanstein, 67 
Hard Bast, 105 
Haustoria, 195 
Hawthorn, 286 
Head, defined, 139 
Hedeoma pulegioides, 344 
Hedera Helix, 323 
Helianthemum, 317 
canadense, 317 
Helianthus, tuberosus, 351 
Heliotropes, 336 
Helleborus niger, 275 
Helonias, 252 
Helvellales, 213 
Henbane, 338 
Hepaticae, 231 
Hepburn, 62 
Herb, defined, 100 
Herba Majorans, 344 
Hesperidin, micro-chemic test for, 51 
Hesperidium, 165 
Heterocysts, 184 
Hevea braziliensis, 303 
Hibiscus Syriacus, 311 
Hilum, 155, 169 
Histology, defined, 1 
of Aconitum, 93 
of annual dicotyl stem, 101 
of anther, 149, 150 
of bark, no 

of California Privet root, 91-93 
of Cascara Sagrada, no 

24 


Histology of dicotyl tuberous root, 93 
of dicotyl roots, of primary 
growth, 89, 90 
of secondary growth, 90, 91 
of dicotyl stems, 101-108 
of fern lamina, 17 
root, 16, 17 
sori and sporangia, 19 
stem, 13-16 
stipe, 17 

of fruits, 166, 167, 168 
of Greenbrier stem, 114, 115 
of herbaceous monocotyl stem, 1 13 
of leaves, 130-136 
of monocotyl roots, 88, 89 
of monocotyl stems, herbaceous, 

113 

woody, X14, 115 

of perennial dicotyl stem, 104, 105 
of seeds, 1 70-1 73 
Holdfast, 194 
Honey dew, 214 
Honeysuckle Family, 346 
Horsetails, 237 
Host, 195 

Hounds’ tongue, 336 
Humulus lupulus, 267 
Huxley, 40 
Hybrid, 2 
Hydnacese, 222 
Hydnum, 222 
Flydrangea, 284 

arborescens, 285 
Hydrastis canadensis, 273 
Hydrophytes, 83 
Hydrophyllaceae, 336 
Hydropterales, 241 
Hymenium, 224 

Hymenomycetes, 220 , 

Hyoscyamus, 339 
niger, 339 
Flypha, 195 
Hyphs, aerial, 205 
submerged, 205 
Hyssopus officinalis, 344 


INDEX 


37 ° 


Ignatia, 330 
lllicium verum, 272 
Indigenous, defined, 1 
Indigo, 292 

Indigofera tinctoria, 292 
Indirect nuclear division, 43, 44 
Indusium, 19, 240 
Inflorescence, defined, 136 
ascending, 137 
centrifugal, 137 
centripetal, 137 
cymose, 137 
determinate, 137 
descending, 137 
indeterminate, 137, 138 
mixed, 137 

Inflorescences, of Pine, 243 
of Zea Mays, 247 
Imperatoria Ostruthium, 325 
Indehiscent fruit, 161 
Indeterminate inflorescence, solitary, 

138 

Indian Corn, histology of seed, 170 
Indian Turnip, 249 

Integuments of angiospermous ovule, 
155 

Intercellular-air-spaces, lysigenous, 83 
schizogenous, 83 
Internal glands, 84 
phloem, 107 
Internode, defined, 98 
Intussusception, 39, 65 
Inula Helenium, 353 
Inulase, 63 
Inulin, 51 

Invertase, 46, 47, 63 
Involucre, 138 
Ipecacuanha, 346 
Ipo/ncea, 334 

orizabensis, 335 
pandurata, 335 
simulans, 335 
Iridaceae, 252 
Iris, florentina, 252 
germanica, 252 


Iris, pallida, 252 
style of, 157 
versicolor, 252 
Irish Dulse, 195 
Moss, 195 
Isoetaceae, 237 
Isoetes, 237 

Jalapa, 335 
Male, 335 
Tampico, 335 
Wild, 335 
Janczewski, 67 
Japanese Galls, 304 
Jateorhiza palmata, 276, 2 
Jerusalem Artichoke, 351 
Jungermanniales, 232 
Juglandaceae, 264 
Juglandales, 264 
Juglans N. F., 265 
cinerea, 265 
Juniperus, 243 

communis, 244 
Oxycedrus, 244 
Sabina, 244 
Virginiana, 244 
Juniperus N. F., 244 


Kamala, 303 
Karyokinesis, 43, 44 
Kava, 260 
Kieselguhr, 190 
Kino, 292 
Kochia, 271 
Koenigia, 270 
Kola, 31 1 

Krameria argentea, 292 
Ixina, 292 
triandra, 292 

Labellum, 146 
Labiatae, 70, 342 
Lachnea, 204, 206 
Lactase, 63 


INDEX 


3 . 7 1 


Lactuca, 62 

Leaf base, hastate, 124 

virosa, 353 

reniform, r24 

Lactucarium, 62, 353 

sagittate, 124 

Lamiaceas, 342 

duration, 127 

Lamina, mode of development of, 130 

caducous, 127 

Landolphia, 62 

deciduous, 127 

Lappa, 354 

evergreen, 127 

Larix Europaea, 244 

persistent, 127 

Larkspur, 272 

insertion, i2o-r2 2 

Lateral rootlets, 16 

amplexicaul, 1 20 

Latex, 62, 77 

cauline, 120 

cells, 75, 76 

clasping, 120 

Laticiferous tissue, 75 

connate-perfoliate. 

vessels, 77 

equitant, t2o 

Lauraceae, 278 

perfoliate, 120 

anthers of, 149 

radical, 120 

Laurus, 280 

ramal, 120 

Lavendula vera, 344 

rank, 118 

Leaf, color, 127 

margin, X24, 125 

complete, 119 

crenate, 124 

definition of, 116 

cleft, t26 

exstipulate, 120 

dentate, 124 

functions, 116 

divided, 126 

sessile, t2o 

entire, 124 

stipulate, 120 

incised, 124 

Leaf apex, 124 

lobed, 124 

acuminate, 124 

parted, 126 

acute, 124 

repand, 124 

aristate, 124 

runcinate, 124 

cuspidate, 124 

serrate, 124 

emarginate, 124 

outline, 122 

mucronate, 124 

acerose, 122 

obcordate, 124 

acicular, 122 

obtuse, 124 

cuneate, 122 

retuse, 124 

deltoid, 124 

truncate, 124 

elliptical, 122 

arrangement, 117 

ensiform, 122 

alternate, 118 

filiform, 122 

decussate, 118 

inequilateral, 122 

fascicled, 118 

linear, 122 

opposite, xi8 

lanceolate, 122 

verticillate, 118 

oblong, 122 

base, 123, 124 

oblanceolate, 122 

auriculate, 124 

orbicular, 122 

cordate, 124 

ovate, 122 


INDEX 


372 

Leaf outline, peltate, 122 
spatulate, 122 
surface, 127 
glabrous, 127 
glaucous, 127 
hispid, 127 
pubescent, 127 
pellucid-punctate, 127 
rugose, 127 
scabrous, 127 
sericious, 127 
spinose, 127 
tomentose, 127 
villose, 127 
verrucose, 127 
texture, 127 
coriaceous, 127 
membranous, 127 
succulent, 127 
venation, 120 

anastomosing, 120 
furchate, 120 
palmate, 1 20 
parallel, 120 
pinni, 120 
reticulate, 120 
Leaves, bifacial, 130, 134 
binate, 126 
bipinnate, 123, 126 
biternate, 126 
bract, 1 1 7 

centric, 130, 132, 133 
bracteolar, 117 
compound, 122 
palmately, 126 
pinnately, 126 
convergent, 130, 132 
decompound, 126, 127 
development of lamina of, 130 
dorso ventral, 130 

hydrophytic, 130, 132 
mesophytic, 130, 131 
umbrophytic, 130 
xerophytic, 130, 135 
foliage, 1 17 


Leaves, imparipinnate, 126 
lyrate, 126 
palmate, 126 
paripinnate, 126 
pinnate, 126 
primordial, 117 
scale, 1 17 

stomata of, 134-136 
types of Angiospermous, 117 
xerophytic, 130, 133, 135 
Lecanora, 230 
Lechea, 317 
Legume, 163 
Leguminosae, 289 

root tubercles of, 93, 94 
Lenticels, 107 
Leptandra, 340 
Leptome, 77, 78 
Leucoplastids, 40 
Levisticum, 325 
officinale, 325 
Lichens, 229 

Life history, of an angiosperm, 32-36 
of aspidium, 13-23 
of black mold, 196-199 
of claviceps purpurea, 214 
of fern, 13 

of gymnosperm, 24-31 
of moss, 235 
of mushrooms, 223-226 
Lignin, 70 
Lignocellulose, 66 
Ligule, 247 
Lilac, 329 
Liliaceae, 249 
Liliales, 249 
Lilium, 249 
Lily Family, 249 
Lima bean, histology of, 172 
Limb, 143 

Limonis Cortex, 299 
Linaceae, 294 
Linaria, 147, 340 
Linden Family, 31 1 
Linin, 43 


INDEX 


373 


Linum, 169, 295 

usitatissimum, 294, 295 
Lipase, 64 

Liquidambar orientalis, 285, 286 
Litmus, 230 
Liverworts, 231 
Lobelia inflata, 349 
Lobeliacese, 349 
Loganiaceae, 329 
Lomentum, 164 
Lunaria, 144 
Lunularia, Fig. of, 231 
Lupulinum, 267 
Lycoperdales, 226 
Lycoperdon, 226, 227 
Lycopodiaceae, 236 
Lycopodineae, 236 
Lycopodium clavatum, 236, 237 
Lythraceae, 319 

Macis, 

Macrocystis, 192 
Macromorphology, 1 
Magnoliaceae, 272 
Mahogany Family, 300 
Making of sections, 10 
Male Fern, 13-23 
Male Jalap, 335 
Mallotus philippinensis, 303 
Mallow Family, 31 1 
Maltase, 62 
Maltose, 46 
Maltum, 248 
Malva rotundifolia, 311 
Malvaceae, 31 1 

anthers of, 149 
Malvales, 309 
Mamillaria, 317 
Manaca, 339 
Mangels, 271 
Manihot, 62 

utilissima, 64, 303 
Manna, 47 
Maple Family, 307 
Marchantia, 232 


Marchantiales, 232 
Marrubium vulgare, 344 
Marsdenia Condurango, 334 
Mastiche, 304 
Matico, 260 
Matricaria, 352 

Chamomilla, 353 

Maturation of pollen grain in Ery- 
thronium, 34 
Maw seed, 281 
Mechanical tissues, 84 
Medullary rays, 81 
Megaceros, 232 
Megasori, 155 
Megaspore, 155 
Megasporophyll, 154 
Melaleuca Leucadendron, 323 
Melia, 301 
Meliaceae, 300 
Melibiose, 46 
Melilotus, 292 

officinalis, 292 
Melissa officinalis, 344 
Melochia, 309 
Melon tree, 317 
Membrane crystals, 55, 36 
Menispermum, 275 
canadense, 276 
Mentha piperita, 343, 344 
spicata, 344 
viridis, 344 

Menyanthes trifoliata, 332 
Mericarp, 164 

histology of a, 167 
Meristem, 68 
Merulius, 223 
Mesocarp, 160 
Mesophytes, 83 
Metachlamydea?, 326 
Method for mounting and staining 
bacteria, 179, 180 
for preparation of Canada balsam 
mount, 9 

for staining and mounting par- 
affine material, 9, 16 


374 


INDEX 


Methylene Blue, 66 
Loffler’s, 181 

Methylis Salicylas, 265, 328 
Mexican Grass, 46, 217 
Mezereum, 318, 319 
Micrandra, 303 
Micrococci, types of, 175 
Micrococcus catarrhalis, 179 
gonorrhoea;, 179 
melitensis, 179 
meningitidis, 179 
Micro-crystals, 55, 56 
Micrometer, ocular, n 
stage, 11 
Micrometry, n 
Micromorphology, 1 
Micron, 11 
Micropyle, 155 

Microscope, compound, 4, 5, 6, 7 
defined, 4 
figure of, s 
rules for care of, 7 
simple, 4 

Microscopic measurement, n 
Microsorus, 147 
Microsporangia, 149 
Microspore, 151 
Microsporophylls, 147 
Microspira, 176 
Middle lamella, 39 
Milkweed Family, 334 
Milkwort Family, 302 
Mimoseas, 289 
Mint Family, 342 
Mistletoe, 37 
Mitchella, 34s 
Mitella, 284 
Mitosis, 43, 44 

Mode of development of lamina, 130 
Mold, black, 196, 197 
bread, 196 
green, 204 

Momordica Balsamina, 348 
Monarda, 344 

punctata, 344 


Monkshood 272 
Monocotyledoneae, 245 
Monotropa, 326 
Moonseed Family, 275 
Moraceae, 266 
Morchella esculenta, 213 
Morning Glory Family, 334 
Morphology, defined, 1 
Mosses, 232 
Mountain Ash, 46 
Mucilage, 58 

cell content, 59 
membrane, 59 
micro-chemic test for, 59 
Mucor mucedo, 198, 199 
stolonifer, 196 
Mucorales, 196 
Mucuna pruriens, 292 
Muhlenbeckia, 269 
Mulberry Family, 266 
Musci, 232 
Mushroom, 224 
Mutisia, 352 
Mycelium, 195, 205 
Mycobacteriaceae, 176 
Mycobacterium, 176 
Mycorrhiza, 213 
Myosotis, 336 
Myrcia acris, 323 
Myrica N. F., 264 
Caroliniensis, 263 
cerifera, 262, 263, 264 
Gale, 264 
Macfarlanei, 96 

Myricaceae, characters of family, 261 
root tubercles of, 93, 95, 96 
Myricales, 261 
Myrobalans Family, 323 
Myristica, 169, 277 
fragrans, 278 
Myristicaceae, 277 
Myronase, 64 
Myrosin, 64 
Myrrh Family, 299 
Myrrha, 300 


INDEX 


375 


Myrtaceae, 320 
Myrtales, 318 
Myrtiflorae, 318 
Myrtle Family, 320 
Myxogastrales, 3 
Myxomycetes, 184 

Natural system, 2 

Naturalized, defined, 1 

Negundo, 307 

Nepenthes, 64 

Nepenthin, 64 

Nepeta, cataria, 344 

Nephrodium. See Dryopteris. 

Nicotiana tabacum, 339 

Nicotine, micro-chemic test for, 53 

Nidulariales, 227 

Nightshade, 339 

Node, 98 

Non-protoplasmic cell contents, 45-64 
Nostoc, 184 
Nucellus, 155, 169 
Nuclear membrane, 39 
Nuclei, assisting, 159 
polar, 159 
Nucleins, 57, 58 
Nucleolus, 38 
Nucleus, 40 

• division, 43, 44 
endosperm, 159 
Nut, 164 

Nutgall, Fig. of, 266 
Nutlet, 163 
Nux Vomica, 169, 330 
Nyssa, 325 

Ochrea, 129 
Octant cells, 23 
Ocrea, 269 

Ocular micrometer, 1 1 
CEdogonium, 42 
Oil, cedarwood, 244 
chaulmoogra, 316 
cocoanut, 248 
linseed, 295 
palm, 248 


Oil, rose geranium, 294 
Oils, fixed, 59 

nitrogenated, 60 
oxygenated, 60 
sulphurated, 60 
volatile, 60 
Olea Europaea, 329 
Oleaceae, 328 
Oleander, latex of, 62 
Oleoresins, 60, 61 
Olibanum, 300 
Olive Family, 328 
Oleum anisi, 272 

auranlii florum, 299 
betulae, 265 
bergamottae, 299 
cadinum, 244 
cajeputi, 323 
chenopodii, 272 
cinnamomi, 280 
erigerontis, 355 
gossypii seminis, 313 
juniperi, 244 
lavendulae, 344 
myristicae, 278 
pini pumilionis, 244 
rosmarini, 344 
ricini, 303 
santale, 268 
sesami, 342 
terebinthinae, 244 
theobromatis, 31 1 
thy mi, 344 

tighi, 303 

Oogonia, 191, 192 

Oogonium, 194 

Oomycetes, 199 

Oosphore, 22, 67, 159, 192, 194 

Operculina Turpethum, 335 

Operculum, 236 

Ophioglossales, 4 

Opium, 62, 281 

Optical combination, 12 

Opuntia, 317 

Opuntiales, 317 


376 

Orchid, floral organs of, 255 
Orchidaceas, 256 
Orchidete, 256 
Order, 2 

Ordinary Parenchyma, 69 
Oregon balsam, 244 
Organs, essential, 142 
plant, 85 
reproductive, 85 
vegetable, 85 
Origanum, 344 

majorana, 344 
vulgare, 344 
Oscillatoria, 183, 184 
Ostwald, 62 

Ourouparia Gambir, 346 
Outline of plant groups, 3 
Ova, 240 
Ovary, 154 

Ovule, amphitropous, 155 
anatropous, 135 
campylotropous, 155 
orthotropous, 155 
shape of, 155 
Ovules, 154 

defined, 155 
in angiosperms, 155 
in gymnosperms, 155 
position of, 155 

Pachistima, 304, 303 
Palaquium, 328 
Palm oil, 248 
Palmaceae, 248 

Panax quinquefolium, 323, 324 
repens, 324 
Panicle, 139 
Papaver, 136 

somniferum, 281 
Papaveraceae, 280 
Papaverales, 280 
Papaw, 64 
Papaw Family, 317 
Papilionaceae, 289, 290 
Pappus, 160 


INDEX 

Paprika, 339 

Paraphyses, 194, 204, 235 
Parasite, 193 
Pareira, 276 
Parenchyma, 69 
assimilation, 69 
conducting, 69 
ordinary, 69 
reserve, 69 
Parietales, 314 
Parmelia, 230 
Parsley Family, 324 
Passiflora N. F., 316 
incarnata, 316 
Passifloraceae, 316 
Pathogens, 174 
Paullinia Cupana, 306 
Paulownia imperialis, 340 
Pea Family, 289 
Peach, 286 
Pear, 286 
Peat mosses, 233 
Pedalinaceae, 342 
Pedicularis, 340 
Peduncle, 137 
Peireskia, 317 
Pelargonium, 293 
capitatum, 294 
odoratissimum, 294 
Radula, 294 
Pellionia, 48 
Penicillium, 204 

brevicaule, 207, 210 
camemberti, 207, 209 
expansum, 208 
glaucum, 204, 207 
roqueforti, 206, 209 
Pentstemon, 147, 340 
Peony, 273 
Pepo, 165, 348 
Pepper Family, 239 
Pepsin, 64 
Perianth, 143, 145 
Periblem, 67, 68 
Pericambium, 90 


INDEX 


377 


Pericarp, 160 
Pericladium, 128, 324 
Pericycle, 16 
Periderm, 108 
Peridium, 220 
Peridolum, 227 
Perigone, 143 
Perithecia, 209, 214 
Permanent mounts, preparation of, 89 
Peronosporales, 199 
Petals, 145 
Petiole, 1 2 7-1 29 
Petroselini Radix, 325 
Petroselinum, 325 
Sativum, 325 
Peziza, 204 

repanda, 205 
Pezizales, 204 
Phaeophyceae, 192 
Phallales, 228 
Phanerogamia, 241 
Pharmaceutical Botany, defined, 2 
Phaseolus multifiorus, 73 
Phelloderm, 108 
Phloem, defined, 83 
internal, 107 
interxylary, 107 
intraxylarv, 107 
parenchyma, 69 
Phloroglucin, 66 
Phoenix, 248 

sylvestris, 46 
Photogens, 174 
Photosynthesis, 18 
defined, 116 
Phragmidiothrix, 177 
Phycocyanin, 62 
Phycoerythrin, 62 
Phycophaein, 62, 192 
Phycomycetes, 196 
Phycoxanthin, 192 
Phyllotaxy, 117, 118 
Physcia stellaris, 229 
Physiology, defined, 1 
Physostigma, 157, 169, 292 


Physostigma, venenosum, 292, 293 
Phytogeography, 1 
Phytoglobulins, 58 
Phytolacca, 272 
decandra, 271 
Phytopalaeontology, 2 
Phytopathology, 1 
Phytophthora, 199 
Picea, 243 

canadensis, 244 
mariana, 244 
rubra, 244 

Picrasma excelsa, 299, 300 
Pigments, 61 
Pileus, 213, 222 
Pilobolus, 196 
Pilocarpus, 298 

Jaborandi, 29S 
microphyllus, 298 
Pimenta, 323 

officinalis, 323 
Pimiento, 339 
Pimpinella, Anisum, 325 
magna, 325 
Saxifraga, 325 
Pinaceai, 243 
Pine Family, 243 
Stem, 25 
Pineapple, 64 
Pinenes, 60 
Pinites succinifer, 244 
Pinna, 239 
Pinnule, 239 
Pinus, 243 
alba, 244 
maritima, 244 
montana, 244 
palustris, 244 
sylvestris, 27, 84 
strobus, 24, 244 
Piperacete, 259 
Piper angustifolium, 260 
cubeba, 259 
methysticum, 260 
nigrum, 260 


37 § 

Piscidia Erythrina, 292 
Pistacia vera, 304 
lentiscus, 304 
Pistachio, 304 
Pistil dicarpellary 155 
monocarpellary, 134 
polycarpellary, 155 
tricarpellary, 155 
system, 154 
Pix Burgundica, 244 
Canadensis, 244 
Liquida, 244 
Placenta, defined, 156 
Placentation, 156 
Planococcus, 175 
Planosarcina, 175 
Plant, acaulescent, 98 
anemophilous, 158 
annual, 88 
biennial, 88 
caulescent, -97 
cell, 38 
dioecious, 142 
entomophilous, 158 
geography, 1 
hairs, 74, 75 
hydrophilous, 158 
indigenous, 1 
monoecious, 142 
naturalized, 2 
organs, 85-173 
perennial, 88 
tissues, 67 
zoophilous, 158 

Plantaginacere, placentation in, 156 

Plasma membranes, 39, 45 

Plasmodiocarp, 185 

Plasmodium, 184 

Plastids, 40 

Platystemon, 280 

Plectascales, 204 

Plerome, 67, 68 

Pleurococcaceae, 186 

Pleurococcus, 186 

Plum, 286 


INDEX 

Plumule, 85 
Podophyllum, 275 

peltatum, 275, 276 
Polemoniales, 334 
Pollen, 150, 151, 152, 153 
maturation of, 158, 159 
Pollination, 33, 34, 158 
Pollinia, 154 
Polyembryony, 37 
Polygala, 64 
lutea, 302 
senega, 302, 303 
Polygalaceae, 302 
Polygonaceae, 156, 269 
Polygonales, 269 
Polygonatum, 249 
Polygonum, 269 
Bistorta, 270 
Polypodiales, 241 
Polyporacese, 222 
Polyporus, enzyme in, 63 
officinalis, 223 

Polytrichum commune, 234, 235 
Pome, 165 

Pomegranate Family, 319 
Poplar, 261 
Poppy Family, 280 
Populi Gemrme, 261 
Populus balsamifera, 261 
nigrum, 261 
Pore Fungi, 222 
Porella, 232 
Potentilla, 144 
silvestris, 289 
Prefloration, 140, 141 
Prefoliation, 118 
Primulaceae, placentation in, 156 
Principes, 248 

Principles of classification, 2, 3 
Privet, 329 
Proembryo, 192 
Promycelium, 218 
Proportions of stamens, 148 
Protective tissues, 84 
Proteins, 19, 57, 58 


INDEX 


3 79 


Prothallial cushion, 22 
Prothallus, 240 
Protoascales, 199 
Protobasidiomycetes, 217 
Protococcales, 186 
Protonema, 20, 232, 235, 240 
Protophloem, 90, 104 
Protophyta, 174 
Protoplasm, 38, 39 
Protoplasmic cell contents, 40, 41 
Protoxylem, 90, 104 
Prunum N. F., 288 
Prunus, 286 

amygdalus car. amara, 289 
cerasus, 59 
domestica, 288, 289 
serotina, 286 
virginiana, 286 
Pseudobulbs, 99 
Pseudomonas radicicola, 95 
Pseudopodia, 185 
Pseudotsuga mucronata, 244 
Ptelea, 298, 299 
trifoliata, 299 
Pteridophyta, 4, 236 
Pterocarpus marsupium, 292 ' 
Puccinia Graminis, 218 
Puff Balls, 227 
Pulsatilla, 273 
Pt»lvinus, 128 
Pumpkin, 347 
Punica Granatum, 320 
Punicaceae, 319 
Purified Siliceous Earth, 190 
Putamen, 161 
Pyrenoid, 188 
Pyrenomycetes, 213 
Pyrethri Flores, 354 
Pyrethrum, 353 
Pyrola, 326 
Pyrus malus, 288 
Pyxis, 163 

Quassia amara, 299 
Quercus N. F., 265 


Quercus alba, 265 

infectoria, 265, 266 
occidentaiis, 265 
Suber, 265 
Quillaj aN. F., 286 

Saponaria, 286, 288 

Raceme, 138 
Radicle, 85 
Ranales, 272 
Ranunculaceae, 272 
Ranunculus, 273 
Raphe, rss, 169 
Raphides, 55 
Receptacle, 143 
Receptacles of Fucus, 194 
Red Pepper, 338 
Regma, 163 
Rejuvenescence, 42 
Reproduction, asexual, 42 
defined, 42 
sexual, 42 
vegetative, 42 

Resin, micro-chemic test for, 61 
Resina, 244 
Resins, 60 

Resinogenous layer, 60 
Reserve cellulose, 66 
parenchyma, 69 
starches, 48, 49 
Respiration, 116 
Rhamnales, 307 
Rhamnase, 64 
Rhamnose, 64 
Rhamnus cathartica, 307 
Frangula, 64, 307 
# Purshiana, 307, 308 
Rheum officinale, 270 
palmatum, 270 
Rhinanthus, 340 
Rhizoids, 20, 191, 231, 235 
Rhizome, 100 
Rhizopus, 198 
nigricans, 196 
Rhododendron, 150, 326 


INDEX 


380 


Rhodophycese, 194 
Rhodymenia palmata, 195 
Rhoedales, 280 
Rhubarb, 270 
Rhus, cotinus, 304 
Glabra N. F., 304 
japonica, 304 
semialata, 304 
toxicodendron, 304 
typhina, 304 
venenata, 304 
Ribes, 284 
Riccia, 232 

Ricinus communis, 303 
Rocella, 230 
Rock Rose Family, 317 
Root, defined, 85 
adventitious, 87 
anomalous, 87 
cap, 86 

classification as to form, 87, 88 
conical, 87 

distinction from stem, 87 
duration of, 88 
epiphytic, 87 
functions, 85, 86 
fusiform, 87 

generative tissues of, 86, 87 

hairs, 86 

histology, 88-93 

lateral, 16 

primary, 87 

secondary, 87 

system, 94 

tubercles, 93-96 

Roots, Dicotyledon, abnormal struc- 
ture in, 93 ( 

of primary growth, 89-90 
of secondary growth, 90-91 
Monocotyledon, 88, 89 
napiform, 87 
nodule producing, 94 
Roridula, 283 
Rosa, canina, 289 
centifolia, 289 


Rosa, Gallica, 288 
Rosaceae, 287 
Rosales, 284 
Rosette aggregates, 55 
Rosmarinus officinalis, 344 
Rubber, 62 
Rubi Fructus, 288 
Rubi ldaei Fructus, 288 
Rubiacea?, 343 
Rubiales, 345 
Rubus N. F., 286 
cuneifolius, 286 
Idasus, 288 
nigrobaccus, 286, 288 
strigosus, 288 
villosus, 286, 288 
Ruellia ciliosa, 342 
Rumex N. F., 270 
Rumex, 269 

acetosella, 269 
crispus, 270 
obtusifolius, 270 
Rusts, 218 
Ruta graveolens, 299 
Rutacese, 297 

hesperidin in, 51 
Ruteas, 297 

Sabal, 284 

Sabbatia angularis, 332 
Sabina, 244 

Saccharomyces anomalus, 200 
apiculatus, 204 
cerevisiae, 200, 201 
ellipsoideus, 203, 204 
exiguus, 200 
farinosus, 200 
Ludwigii, 200 
mali Duclauxii, 200 
marxianus, 200 
membranifaciens, 200, 204 
pastorianus, 200 
Saccharum, 272 

officinarum, 248 
Saddle Fungi, 213 


INDEX 


381 


Salep, 59 
Salicaceae, 260 
Salicales, 260 
Salicin, 262 

micro-chemic test for, 52 
Salix, 261 
alba, 261 

Salvia officinalis, 344 
Salvina, 241 
Samara, 164 

Sambucus canadensis, 347 
nigra, 347 

Sandalwood Family, 268 
Sandaraca, 244 
Sanguinaria canadensis, 281 
Santalaceas, 268 
Santalales, 268 
Santalum album, 268 
Rubrum, 291 
Santonica, 355 
Santoninum, 354 
Sap cell, 205 
nuclear, 43 
vacuoles, 39 
Sapindaceae, 306 
Sapindales, 304 

Saponin, micro-chemic test for, 52 

Sapotaceae Family, 328 

Saprogens, 174 

Saprolegniales, 199 

Saprophyte, 195 

Sarcina, 175, 178 

Sarcocarp, 16 1 

Sarcosphaera, 206 

Sarracenia, style of, 157 

Sarraceniales, 283 

Sarsaparilla, 251 

Sassafras medulla, 280 

Sassafras variifolium, 280 

Saw Palmetto Palm, Fig. of, 249 

Saxifragaceae, 284 

Saxifrage, 284 

Scale leaves, 117 

Scales, 73 

Scammoniae Radix, 335 


Scape, 99, 137 
Schizomycetes, 174 
Schizophyta, 174 
Schleiden, 38 
Scitaminales, 253 
Sclerenchyma, 70 
fibers, 71 
Sclerotium, 214 
Scoparius, 292 
Scopola Carniolica, 339 
Scorpoid cyme, 139 
Scotch Pine, 27 
Scouring Rushes, 237 
Scrophulariaceae, 340 
Scullcap, 343 
Scutellaria lateriflora, 344 
Secretion canals, 84 
reservoirs, 84 
sacs, 83 

Secretory cells, 77 
Sections, making of, 10 
radial-longitudinal, 11 
tangential-longitudinal, 1 1 
transverse, 10 
Seed, 168 

albuminous, 169 
Dicotyl, 172 
exalbuminous, 169 
germination, 35 
Monocotyl, 170 
Seedling, 171 
Selaginella, 237 
Martensii, 238 
Selaginellaceae, 237 
Semen Rapae, 283 
Senecio N. F., 353 
aureus, 353 
Senna, 292 

Sepaline, position, 145 
spurs, 144 
stipules, 144 
Sepals, 143 

epigynous, 145 
hypogynous, 145 
perigynous, 145 


382 


INDEX 


Serenoa serrulata, 248 
Serpentaria, 26g 
Serphyllum, 344 
Sesame Family, 342 
Sesamum indicum, 342 
Sieve, 77, 78 
Silica, 56 

Siliceous Earths, 190 
Silicule, 163 
Siliqua, 163 
Simaruba amara, 299 
officinalis, 299 
Simarubaceae, 299 
Sinapis alba, 283 
nigra, 283 
Siphonales, 191 
Skunk Cabbage, 249 
Slime Molds, 184 
Smilax, 250 

medica, 251 
officinale, 251, 253 
ornata, 251 
Smuts, 217 c 
Soapwort Family, 306 
Soft bast, 105 
Solanaceae, 337 
Solaneae, 150 

Solanin, micro-chemic test for, 54 
Solanum N. F., 339 
carolinense, 339 
Dulcamara, 339 
Solitary crystals, 55 
Sorbinose, 46 
Soredia, 229 
Sorghum, 46 
Sorosis, 165 
Sorus, 240 
Sour Gum, 32's 
Soy Bean, 292 
Spadix, 139 
Spathe, 139 
Species, 2 
Spermacia, 220 
Spermagonia, 220 
Spermatocyte, 20 


Spermatophyta, 241 
outline'of, 4 

Spermatozoid of fern, 21, 22 
Spermoderm, 168 
Sperms, 194 
Sphagnales, 233 
Sphagnum acutifolium, 233 
squarrosum, 233 
Spicebush Family, 278 
Spigelia, 329 

marilandica, 330 
Spike, 139 
Spinach, 271 
Spine, 99 

Spirilla, types of, 176 
Spirillum, 176 

cholerae asiaticae, 179 
obermeieri, 179 
Spirochasta, 176 
Spirogyra, 188, 189 
Spirosoma, 176 
Sporangiophores, 196 
Spore, 19 

brand, 218 

Sporogonium, 232, 236 
Sporophore, 220, 222 
Sporophyte, generation, 13-20 
Spruce Gum, 244 
Spurge Family, 303 
Spur shoot, 24 
Spurs, sepaline, 144 
Staff Tree Family, 304 
Stage micrometer, n 
Stain, for “acid proof” bacteria, 181 
Van Ermengems flagella, i8t, 182 
Staining, 9 

of bacteria, 179-182 
Stamen System, 147 
Stamens, color of, 148 
connation of, 148 
definite, 147 
diadelphous, 148 
didynamous, 148 
epigynous, 148 
gynandrous, 148 


INDEX 


38,3 


Stamens, histology of parts, 148-150 
hypogynous, 148 
indefinite, 148 
insertion of, 148 
monadelphous, 148 
perigynous, 148 
polyadelphous, 148 
proportions of, 148 
tetradynamous, 148 
triadelphous, 148 
Staphisagria, 275 
Staphylococcus, 175 

pyogenes aureus, 179 
Star Apple Family, 328 
Starch, 47 

assimilation, 47 
Buckwheat, 50 
Canna, 51 
Cassava, 51 

characteristics of commercial 
kinds, 49, 50 
Corn, 50 

Leguminous, 51 < j 

Maranta, 49 

Potato, 49 

Rice, 50 

Rye, 50 

reserve, 47 

structure and composition of, 49, 
5 ° 

Wheat, 50 
Stem, defined, 97 

direction of growth, 98 
distinction from root, 87 
functions,- 97 
generative tissues of, 98 
modification of, 98, 99 
Stems, above-ground, 99, 100 
aerial-tuberous, 99 
annual, 98 
ascending, 98 
biennial, 98 
cactoid, 99 
climbing, 99 
decumbent, 98 


Stems, duration of, 98 
elongation of, 98 
endogenous, 100, 101 
exceptional types of dicotyl, 106 
107 

exogenous, 100 
fruticose, 100 
herbaceous, 99 

histology of annual dicotyl, 101, 
102 

of perennial dicotyl, 104, 105 
of herbaceous monocotyl, 113 
of woody monocotyl, 114, 115 
perennial, 98 
phylloid, 99 
procumbent, 98 
reclining, 98 
repent, 98 
scandent, 99 
spiny, 99 

subterranean tuberous, 99 
suffruticose, 99 
tendriliform, 99 
Sterculiaceae, 309, 31 1 
Sterigmata, 31 1 

Sterigmatocystis niger, 210, 21 1 
Stevens, 54 
Stigma, 154 

defined, 157 

of animal pollinated flowers, 157 
of wind pollinated flowers, 157 
papillae of, 157 
Stillingia, 303 

sylvatica, 303 
Stink horn, 228 
Stipe, 213, 222 
Stipules, 1 19, 129 
axillary, 129 
caducous scaly, 129 
lateral, 129 
modified, 129, 130 
sepaline, 144 
Stomata, 71 

structure and development of, 
134-136 


384 

Stomata, transpiration, 71 
water, 71 
Stone cells, 71 
Stramonium, 339 
Strawberry, 286 
Streptococcus, 175, 178 
erysipelatis, 179 
pneumoniae, 179 
Streptothrix, 177 
bovis, 179 
Strobile, 139, 163 
Stromata, 214 
Strophanthin, micro-chemic test for, 
Si. 52 

Strophanthus, 333 
hispidus, 333 
Kombe, 333 

Strychnine, micro-chemic test for, 53 
Strychnos Ignatii, 330 
Nux Vomica, 330 
Style, 154, 156 
arms, 156 

collecting hairs of, 157 
Styraceae, 328 
Styrax, 286 

Benzoin, 328 
Sub-hymenium, 224 
Succinum, 244 
Succus Citri, 299 
Pomorum, 288 
Sucrose, 46 
Sudan III, 66 
Sugar cane, 46 
Sugars, 45 

Fliickiger’s micro-chemic test for 
determination of various 
kinds of, 46 
Sumbul, 325 
Sutures, 161 
Swarm spores, 185 
Sweet Potato, 334 
Swertia Chirayita, 332 
Syconium, 165 
Sympetalas, 326 
Symphytum, 336 


INDEX 

Symplocarpus fcetidus, 249 
Synchytrium, 199 
Synergids, 159 
Syringa, 328 

Systematic Botany, 174-355 
defined, 1 

Tabacum, 339 
Tamarindus, 292 
indica, 292 
Tanacetum, 355 
vulgare, 355 
Tannin, 57 
Tannins, 56, 57 
Tapetum, 149, 151 
Tapioca, 303 

Taraxacum officinale, 353 
Taxonomy, defined, 1 
Taxus, 243 
Tea Family, 314 
Tegmen, 168 
Tela contexta, 224 
Teleutospores, 219 
Tendril, 99 
Terebinthina, 244 
Canadensis, 244 
Laricis, 244 
Ternstrcemiaceae, 314 
Terpenes, 60 

Terra Silicea Purificata, 190 
Testa, 168 
Tetrads, 151 
Tetraspores, 195 
Thalamus, 143 
Thallophyta, 174 
outline of, 3, 4 
Thallus, 174 . 

Thamnidium, 199 
Thea sinensis, 314 
Theaceae, 314 
Thelephorales, 221 
Theobroma Cacao, 310, 31 1 
Thiothrix, 117 
Thistle, 352, 353 
Thorn, 99 


INDEX 


385 


Thornapple, 338 
Throat, 143 
Thuja, 243, 244 

occidentalis, 244 
Thymeleaceae, 318 
Thymus Serphyllum, 344 
vulgaris, 344 
Thyrsus, 140 
Tilia, 3x1 
Tiliaccae, 309, 31 1 
Tissues, 67-84 
Tobacco, 337, 338 
Toluifera Balsamum, 291 
Pereirae, 291 
Tomato, 338 
Tooth Fungi, 222 
Tormentilla, 289 
Torus, 143 
Touranose, 47 
Tracheae, 78, 79 
Tracheary tissue, 78 
Tracheids, 80 
Tradescantia zebrina, 41 
Tragacanth, 59 
Tragacantha, 291 
Trailing Arbutus, 327 
Trama, 224 
Transpiration, 116 
Stomata, 72 
Tree, 100 
Trehalase, 63 
Trehalose, 46 
Tremellaceae, 221 
Tremellales, 220 
Trichomes, 72 
Trifolium N. F., 292 
pratense, 292 

Trigonella Foenum-graecum, 292 
Trillium, 252 
Tristicha, 56 
Triticum, 248 
True Mosses, 234 
Truffles, 212, 213 
Trunk, 100 
Trypsin, 64 
2S 


Tschirch, 60 
Tsuga canadensis, 244 
Tube, 143 
Tuber, 100, 213 
Tuberaceae, 212, 213 
Turnera aphrodisiaca, 316 
diffusa, 316 
Turneraceae, 316 
Turpentine Bordeaux, 24 
Turpeth Root, 335 
Tussilago Farfara, 354 

Ulmaceae, 265 
Ulmus, 265 
fulva, 265 
Ulothricaceae, 187 
Ulothrix zonata, 187 
Umbel, 138, 139 
Umbellales, 323 
Umbelliferae, 70, 324 
Umbelliflorae, 323 
Uredinales, 218 
Uredinium, 218 
Uredo linearis, 219 
Uredospore, 218 
Urginea maritima, 252 
Urticales, 265 
Ustilaginales, 217 
Ustilago Maydis, 217 
Zeae, 216, 217 
Utricle, 164 
Uva, 164 
Uva Ursi, 328 

Vaccineae, 327 
Vacuole glycogen, 201 
Vacuoles sap, 39 
Valeriana, 351 

officinalis, 349, 350, 351 
Valerianaceae, 349 
Valves of fruits, 161 
Vanilla, 257 

planifolia, 257 
histology of fruit, 166 
Variety, 2 
Vaucheria, 191 

1 


386 


INDEX 


Vaucheria, terrestris, 187 
Vavaea, 301 
Veil, partial, 223 
universal, 225 
Venation, leaf, 120 
Veratrina, 252 

Veratrine, micro-chemic test for, 53 
Veratrum, 251 
viride, 251 
Verbasci Flores, 342 
Folia, 342 

Verbascum, 147, 340 
Blattaria, 340 
Thapsiforme, 342 
Thapsus, 342 
Verbena N. F., 345 
hastata, 345 
Verbenaceae, 345 
Vernation, 118, 119 
Veronica, 148, 340 
Verticillaster, 139 
Viburnum Lentago, 347 
Opulus, 347 
Prunifolium, 347 
Vinca, 157 

Vinum Xericum, 309 
Viola tricolor, 72, 316 
Violaceae, 316 
Viscum, 37 
Vitaceae, 307 
Vitis, 309 
Volatile oils, 60 
Vouacapoua Araroba, 292 

Walnut Family, 264 
Waltheria, 309 
Water Leaf Family, 336 
Watermelon, 347 
seed, 348 

Water stomata, 71, 72 
Weigelia, 347 
Welwitchia, 36 
Weymouth Pine, 24 
Wheat, Fig. of plant, 246 
rust, 2x8 


Wheat, starch, 50 
White Pine, 24-31 
Willow, 260 
Winter’s Bark, 272 
Witchhazel Family, 285 
Wood, defined, 111 
fibers, 71 
heart-, 113 

microscopic characters of angio 
spermous and gymnosper 
mous, 1 13 
parenchyma, 69 
pine, 112 
sap-, 1 13 

Xanthophyll, 61 
Xanthoxyli Fructus N. F., 299 
Xanthoxylum, 299 
americanum, 299 
Clava-Herculis, 299 
Xerophytes, 83 
Xylem, 79, 83 

Yam Family, 252 
Yeasts, bottom, 203 
defined, 200 

Hansen’s classification of, 200 
top, 200 
Yucca, 249 

Zanthoxyleae, 298 
Zea N. F., 248 
Mays, 248 
Zedoaria, 255 
Ziehl’s Carbol-fuchsin, 181 
Zingiber, 255 

officinale, 254, 255 
Zingiberaceae, 253 
Zoogloea, 94 
Zoospore, 42 
Zoospores, 186, 187 
Zygnemaceae, 188 
Zygomycetes, 196 
Zygophyllaceae, 297 
Zygospore, 188, 190 
Zymase, 46, 47, 63 


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