ECO
BOT
THE
ttamafptiat Jjaitwal,
AND
AND
transactions.
THIRD SERIES.
VOLUME X.
1879-80.
♦
LONDON :
J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET;
Edinburgh, MACLACHLAN & STEWART ; Dublin, FANNIN & Co. ;
Leipzig, TWIETMEYER.
1 880.
■ - v> r »* -• y
■ ; • -
.
•
' * m *
*•
*
. ■
.. -
. .. .
X .
-I
■ . .
■c
■
■ - -
. .
. •
.V- • ' - •*
■ ' 5'- - ' ' .'••• ‘ ■" •• -
, i. / •>- ■
- .
. >. • • •
e
|
, |
|
|
* ■ \ i ] • ;r |
- . |
|
; * |
|
|
* . ' . ? ’* , ...... |
|
|
* : |
• •> ; “*■ • « ■ ••
- • - • • . . . •
* ... • - •
• • . •' • • ■ • •• > " • . ■ ...
' . • . . • • • . . ■ . •.
- •
■ ■ • • .
|
f |
. |
• • |
• • - - |
||||
|
- |
! : : |
• * .* •— |
• • |
• |
• * ■, ** >■ ... |
||
|
- |
■ 'v: • |
• • |
, ^ |
||||
|
* > |
/* > - |
'• V . - • u • if |
. • |
||||
|
■ •/' v. |
; r. |
•: 1 |
|||||
|
. ■ |
•* |
• |
X |
||||
|
■ ■ |
:• ■ |
• |
\
rRINTED BY STEVENS AND RICHARDSON,
.
5, great queen street, Lincoln’s inn fields, London, vt.c.
✓
Che
o
Itarmaceutical Journal
AND
Sfranaattiirna.
YOL. X.— JULY 5, 1 87 9.
NOTES OF SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NITRIFICATION."
BY EDMUND W. DAVY, A.M., M.D., M.R.I.A.
Professor of Forensic Medicine , in the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland.
A good deal of attention on the part of chemists has of late been given to the subject of nitrification, nr the formation of nitrites and nitrates under dif¬ ferent circumstances. This has arisen, in a great measure, from the observations of MM. Schloesing and Muntz, f which were laid before the Academy of France about two years ago. From the researches of those gentlemen, they arrived at the conclusion, that nitrification was due to an organized ferment, and that it was probably the office of some of the low forms of vegetable life, to produce those oxides of nitrogen under different circumstances. And the subsequent investigations of Warrington, Storer and of other chemists, would appear to go far to ■confirm the correctness of their theory of nitrifica¬ tion, at least, under the conditions in which their experiments were made.
Though there exists, no doubt in many cases, an intimate relation between the formation of nitrites and nitrates, and the development of certain organized germs, still, as far as my observations go, I do not -think that there is sufficient proof to show that their development in such instances is the cause of nitrification, and not, rather, one of the circumstances •attendant on that process.
My experiments, however, were made not with a view to determine that question, but in reference to the detection of animal impurities in potable waters, and to ascertain the circumstances which were favourable or otherwise, to the formation of nitrites and nitrates in waters which were so polluted, as the presence of such salts is generally regarded as indicating previous sewage contamination ; and the drinking of water with such pollution is not only injurious to the health of those who thus employ it, but there exist strong grounds for the opinion which is now very generally entertained, that such water frequently becomes the means of conveying the germs of certain formidable diseases, especially those of typhoid fever and cholera, from its contain¬ ing the fecal and other emanations of individuals suffering under those maladies, and thus disease and death are often insidiously brought into many homes, when such diseases are prevalent in different localities. Besides, as the formation or production of nitrates is one of great industrial and agricultural
* Read before the Royal Irish Academy, May 12, 1879.
f Comptes Rendus, lxxxiv., 301.
Third Series, No. 471.
importance, any facts which might directly or indirectly enable us to facilitate or hasten that process, would be of much practical value.
As human urine and feculent matters may justly be regarded as the most offensive and dangerous ingredients of sewage in general, my experiments have been confined to those matters, and were principally made on urine, which from its containing different nitrogenous substances readily susceptible of decomposition, is peculiarly suited for the study of the nitrification of animal matters. By mixing this liquid with various proportions of water, and placing the mixtures under different circumstances, I have endeavoured to ascertain those that were favourable or otherwise to their nitrification, and to determine some points connected with that process which required further investigation.
I should here observe, that in detecting the occurrence of nitrification, I have principally used the well known test of Price for nitrites, which consists in adding to the water or mixture, a thin solution of starch containing a little iodide of potas¬ sium and acidifying with diluted sulphuric acid, when a blue reaction from the liberated iodine will be immediately produced, should a very minute quantity even, of a nitrite be present. And as there is every reason to suppose that the production of nitrites precedes that of nitrates in the nitrification of organic matters in solution, and the detection of the former is much more easily effected than the latter, at least under the conditions existing in my experiments, I was satisfied in most cases to obtain the evidence of the formation of nitrites by the employment of the test to which I have just referred.
The experiments of Warrington* have led him to conclude, that darkness is an essential condition to the development of those low forms of vegetable life, which are supposed in many instances to give rise to nitrification. This is a question which it is difficult to determine decisively, one way or the other, owing to the impossibility of having with us continuous daylight to operate with. Still I think we may arrive at an approximate conclusion on this point, by making comparative experiments on similar mixtures kept altogether excluded from the light, and on those exposed to its full influence, and then deter¬ mining the amount of nitrification which had taken place in each after a given time ; and if darkness be so essential to that process, we should naturally ex¬ pect that in the mixtures exposed to its continuous influence, there would be an earlier and a greater development of nitrification, than in those which had been placed under it, for about one-third or one-half * Journal of the Chemical Society , January, 1878.
2
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1879,
the time each day of twenty-four hours. From the re¬ sults of several comparative experiments made in this way, I have come to the conclusion, that the conditions of light or darkness exercise but little influence one way or the other in this process, at least under the circumstances existing in my experiments, which consisted in placing different portions ot the same mixture in similar bottles, some of which were sur¬ rounded with black cloth or velvet to exclude light, whilst others were left uncovered, and all of them were suffered to remain open or uncorked. On ex¬ amination after a few days, there was but little difference as to the amount* of nitrification that had taken place in each — indeed in some of my experi¬ ments, it had progressed to a greater extent in the uncovered than in the covered bottles ; and in all made on this subject (except those to determine this point as to the necessity or not of darkness) the mixtures were left exposed to the light, and some to the full influence of strong sunshine, yet still a con¬ siderable amount of nitrification took place in each ; besides in nature much of the nitrates which occur in the surface soils of different localities, must have been formed under the influence of more or less day¬ light, all of which facts, I conceive, are more or less opposed to the necessity of darkness in this process.
Another point which has not, I believe, been clearly established, at least as regards nitrification occurring in water containing organic matters, is the necessity of having a certain amount of air or of free oxygen to carry on the process ; this I have proved in the following very simple manner : — To water which had been kept boiling for some time to expel its contained air, I added a small quantity of freshly voided urine (the proportion employed being about one part of urine to sixteen parts of water, such a mixture having been found to be very suitable for nitrification), and then repeated the boiling to en¬ sure the removal as far as possible of any dissolved air. Several bottles which had been kept immersed in the boiling mixture, were then filled completely with it, corked and sealed with sealing wax to pre¬ vent the access of air. Some, however, of them containing this mixture were left open for compari son. After leaving the bottles for a day or two in the same place, I first examined the open ones for nitrites, and when the test indicated the abundant formation of those salts, I opened one of those sealed, when not a trace of nitrites was discoverable in its contents ; the remaining sealed ones were opened at different periods subsequently with the same results. Other comparative experiments were made, where the temperature of the mixtures was artificially kept at a heat very favourable to nitrification, but in every instance where the access of air had been ex¬ cluded no trace of nitrites could be detected, clearly proving the necessity of more or less air or free oxygen for their formation. But the amount neces¬ sary to commence at least, the process is small, for I found that where the mixture had not been boiled previous to the complete filling, corking and sealing of the bottle, that the air dissolved in the liquid was
* In ascertaining the amount of nitrification, the indigo process, as described by Sutton in his ‘ Volumetric An¬ alysis/ was employed, which served f-^r the determination of the nitrites and nitrates collectively, and though it may not be quite so accurate as some other methods, was suffi¬ ciently so for this purpose, as it was only the comparative amount of nitrites and nitrates formed under the different circumstances of the experiments that I wanted to de¬ termine.
sufficient to cause the production of nitrites to some extent.
The quantity of animal matter which is held in solution in the water, I find exercises a considerable influence over nitrification, for where it occurs in very large proportion, there the process either does not take place at all, or is carried on much slower than in the more dilute solutions. This I have proved by comparative experiments with water mixed with different proportions of the same sample of urine, or of solution of excrementitious matter, where 1 found that nitrification occurred first in the more dilute mixtures ; and that where there was much organic matter present, that the nitrites which might ultimately be formed soon afterwards dis¬ appeared again, by their subsequent change or de¬ composition ; whereas those that had been produced in more dilute solutions, have remained unchanged for a considerable time.
But the circumstance which I have found to exer¬ cise the greatest influence over nitrification is that of temperature, for 1 have observed that in cold weather it is very slow in taking place, whilst in warm it is much quicker, and that by the application of artificial heat the process can be greatly acce¬ lerated. The correctness of this observation is borne out by the well-known fact, that it is from the soils of different hot climates that we obtain our chief supply of nitrates. As to what may be the most favourable temperature for this process, I have not yet been able to determine, owing to the difficulty, as I am circumstanced, in maintaining continuously the same degree of artificial heat ; but I have found that where the mixtures were placed where they were kept at a temperature which varied from about 70° to 80° F. , that there the process was carried on very quickly and that nitrites were soon abundantly formed, whereas in similar mixtures maintained at lower degrees of heat or at the ordinary temperature not a trace of those salts could be detected in the same time, and that their presence was not discover¬ able till after a much longer period.
The foregoing observations have, I conceive, some important bearings as regards the contamination of water with sewage, and the evidence of such derivable from the occurrence in it of nitrites and nitrates. For though the presence of those salts is undoubtedly, in many instances, an indication of previous sewage pollution, still their absence, taken by itself, cannot be relied on as a sure indication of the freedom of the water from such contamination. F or the circum¬ stances present may have either been unfavourable to the formation of nitrites and nitrates, or have produced their subsequent rapid disappearance : thus, for instance, the lowness of the temperature of the water may have prevented their formation, or the quantity of organic matter present may have inter¬ fered with their development, or have led to their subsequent change and disappearance. Such, amongst other circumstances influencing the presence of those salts in water containing animal matters, it will at once be evident, that their absence, unless accompanied by other indications of purity, cannot be relied on as a proof of the freedom from such contamination.
Before I conclude, I wish to call attention to another fact which I have noticed in connection with this subject, viz., the rapidity with which nitrites are sometimes formed in waters contamin¬ ated with sewage impurities. This is a subject of considerable importance in an analytical point of
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
3
view, as I shall endeavour briefly to explain. It is well known "by those who have analysed potable waters, that the method which chemists now princi¬ pally employ, to ascertain their purity or otherwise, is to determine the quantity of ammonia a given amount of the water will yield on distillation, both before and after the addition of a strongly alkaline solution of permanganate of potash. The first obtained is termed the free, and the second the albu¬ minoid ammonia. The former is regarded as the representative of the nitrogenous organic matters previously existing in the water, which have under¬ gone more or less decomposition ; whilst the latter is produced by the action of the alkaline perman¬ ganate or those substances still present in the water. Consequently, the less of each that is furnished by a sample of water when so treated, the purer organi¬ cally is it regarded, and the safer, other circum¬ stances being similar, would it be for potable purposes.
When lately analysing a sample of water that had been contaminated with sewage, to ascertain the amount of such pollution, which was afterwards the subject of an important legal inquiry, in my first trial, I found that the water yielded a quantity of free ammonia, which was equivalent to 0-970 parts of a grain per gallon, but on repeating the deter¬ mination a few days afterwards, it was discovered that it had fallen to 0T86 parts of a grain for the same quantity of water, or to less than one-fifth of the former amount ; whereas the quantity of albu¬ minoid ammonia yielded had slightly increased. This result as to the great decrease of free ammonia, which at first rather surprised me, I ascertained was due to the formation of nitrites, which had been de¬ veloped to a large extent, in so short a time, at the expense of the free ammonia.
Such being the case, if the water had not been examined till the date of the second analysis, and if the nitrites had not been taken into account, this water would have been regarded as containing much less free ammonia than it did, and consequently that the previous sewage contamination was less than it really was ; this point, is therefore, one of some analytical importance.
It is right for me to observe in connection with this latter fact of the decrease of free ammonia in waters by keeping, that long after I had made that observation, I came across in the Chemical News for March 2, 1877, a letter written by Professor Pattison Muir, of Owens College, in which he calls the atten¬ tion of chemists to some observations his brother had just made in the laboratory of the University at Sydney, in which he had noticed that the amount of free and of albuminoid ammonia, as determined by Wanklyn’s process, varied very considerably with the time the sample of water had been kept ; but neither of those gentlemen have offered (in the letter referred to) any explanation of the fact further than that Professor P. Muir throws out the suggestion, in the case of the increase by keeping of the albuminoid ammonia, that possibly it might have been owing to the “ germs ” which have escaped decomposition by the permanganate, undergoing a gradual decomposition in the water, and that ammonia is one of the products of this process. Be this as it may, I have satisfied myself that the loss of free ammonia is often due to the formation of nitrites or nitrates, which are very rapidly formed from it under different circumstances. And as regards albuminoid ammonia, the very slight ncrease which I observed in my experiment, was, I
thought, very easily accounted for by my having in the second determination, carried on the process of distillation somewhat further than in the first trial, and in this way the amount might be very naturally increased.
Finally, my observations that nitrification is greatly promoted by warmth might, I conceive, admit of some practical application in the manu¬ facture of the nitrate of potash in the artificial nitre beds, especially in those of cold countries, and I am not aware that heat has hitherto been anywhere artificially applied to hasten or promote that im¬ portant manufacture.
NOTES ON SOME JAPANESE DRUGS.
BY E. M. HOLMES, F.L.S.,
Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society.
The Japanese are perhaps the most enterprising and progressive of Eastern nations, and have already made vast strides in the science and education of the West. In Japanese medicine a similar improvement seems to have taken place, for it was remarked at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, that although 300 specimens representing the advanced materia medica of Japan were exhibited, none of the specimens belonged to the animal kingdom, the various disgusting remedies of that class still used by the Chinese being conspicuous by their absence.
Yet comparatively little is known in English- speaking countries of the drugs used by the Japanese. Beyond an enumeration of thirty well-known drugs used in other countries, no description that I can discover has been published in the English language of the 300 specimens above mentioned.
In New Remedies for January, 1877, a short ac¬ count is given of Japanese medicine,* and the names and uses of a few drugs, and some analyses of a few others have been published in the American Journal of Pharmacy, January, 1879, p. 25.
The large quantity of Japanese aconite that has during the last few years been imported into this country, has in some measure drawn attention to the drugs of Japan . Messrs. Wright and Luff have recently obtained from this aconite an alkaloid which they call Japaconitine. Another alkaloid has been discovered in an unnamed Japanese plant by M. A. Petit. These results have led me to examine the collection which was recently presented to the museum, with a view to ascertain whether any of them appeared to merit chemical examination or could be turned to any practical account in this country. Among those which seem most promising may be mentioned the root of Coptis anemoncefolia, containing a quantity of berberine ; the fruits of Gardenia radicans and G. florida, in which a colouring matter supposed to be identical with that of saffron has been found ; kuh- sing root, containing the very bitter alkaloid dis¬ covered by M. Petit, and a valerian root, which seems to be more powerful than the English drug.
The thoroughness with which the drugs have been dried, their freedom from admixture and their ex¬ cellent quality, seem to indicate that it may be pos¬ sible in the future for drugs from Japan to compete successfully with less carefully prepared products nearer home.
The specimens hereafter described were all met with in the London market, where for some months
* Pharm. Journ., vol. vii., p. 674.
4
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1879.
tliey found no purchaser, nothing being known of their names or uses, all the names being in Japanese characters. In the following notes the drugs have been arranged for convenience of reference under the heads of Roots, Herbs and Leaves, Flowers, Fruits and Seeds, and the Japanese names have been placed in alphabetical order, as being those in which Japanese drugs are most likely to be met with in English commerce on future occasions.
The Japanese names hung, soli, yoh , hah, she, nine/, which are of frequent occurrence in the follow¬ ing list of drugs mean respectively, root, herb, leaves, flowers, seeds and kernels, and must therefore not be looked upon as part of the name of the plant which yields them.
When presented to the museum of the Pharmaceu¬ tical Society by Mr. Christy, the specimens had merely numbers and the names in Japanese charac¬ ters attached to each parcel ; these numbers are here placed in parentheses after each Japanese name, to enable others to whom similar -specimens have been distributed to easily identify them by this means.
I have to acknowledge the great assistance kindly afforded me by Mr. K. Takemura, a Japanese gen¬ tleman studying in the Society’s laboratory, in translating the Japanese labels of the specimens, and also portions of the So mokou Zoussetz, a valuable Japanese work recently presented to the North British Branch of the Society. Without Mr. Takemura’s assistance the botanical sources of many of the specimens could not probably have been so satisfactorily determined .
The works to which abbreviated reference is made, and from which the synonyms for the various drugs have been taken, are as follows : —
Kcempfer, ‘ Amoenitates Exotica?,’ 1712.
Thunberg, ‘Flora Japonica,’ 1786.
Siebold and Zuccarini, ‘Flora Japonica,’ 1835.
Smith, Dr. F. Porter, ‘Chinese Materia Medica,’ 1871.
Miquel, ‘ Prolusio Florae Japonicse,’ 1866-7.
Franchet and Sava tier, ‘Enumeratio Plantarum Japoni- carum,’ 1875.
Hanbury ‘ Science Papers,’ 1876.
ROOTS.
Bai-mo (30) : — Fritillaria Thunbergii, Miq. Prol. p. 321 ; Fr. et Sav. vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 61 ; So mokou Zoussetz, vol. v. fig. 79; Uvularia cirrhosa, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 136.
Syn. Faru juri, Amisa juri, Fr. et Sav.
The drug consists of a white starchy corm varying in size from a hazel nut to a filbert, and consisting of two halves which seem to be respectively the old and young corm, and which enclose between them very young flower buds. They have a bitter taste but no odour, and appear to correspond with the description of the bitter hermodactyle mentioned in the ‘ Pharmacopoeia of India,’ p. 246.
This plant is often found cultivated in gardens in Japan, and flowers in June. The corm is the part used in medicine. The corms have some resemblance to those of the hermodactyle formerly used in medicine in this country, and, indeed, closely re¬ semble in appearance the hermodactyle described by Dr. Porter Smith in his work on ‘ The Materia Medica of China.’ The Chinese character is also identical with the Japanese one, but in Chinese is pronounced Pei-mu instead of Bai-mo.
Pei-mu is used in China for rheumatism and aching joints. Whether it is used similarly in Japan I have no certain knowledge.
Biakoo-boo rung (34) : — Roxburghia sessilifolia Miq. Prol. p. 143; Stemone sessilifolia, Fr. et Sav. vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 92.
Syn. Hiyakubu, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. ii. fig. 55; Shia-kou-bou, Phonzou Zoufou, vol. xxviii. p. 6.
The roots occur in the form of pale shrunken pieces from two to five inches long and internally present a horny appearance. They are tough' and flexible. The taste is sweetish at first and afterwards slightly bitter.
In China it is credited with expectorant, antiphlo¬ gistic and vulnerary properties.
This liliaceous plant grows in the islant of Kiusiu, and has ovate leaves in whorls of four, flowering in May. It is furnished with numerous tubercular roots, which form the drug used in medicine. The Japanese name is probably given in allusion to the number of these tubercul.es, Biakoo meaning a hun¬ dred, boo, parts, and hung, root. The Japanese character for the name is the same as the Chinese character translated Peh-pu by Dr. Porter Smith in his ‘ Chinese Materia Medica,’ and referred by him to Melanthium {]). The specimen in his collection is also identical in appearance with the Japanese drug.
Biak-yitz (12) : —Atractylis ovata, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 306.
Syn. Biyaku jutsu, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. xv. fig. 49 ; Biakou sitsou, Phonzou Zoufou, vol. iv. p. 25, 26; Ikera, Fr. et Sav., vol. i. p. 256.
The root of Biak-yitz occurs in pale brown knotty pieces, irregular in shape and slightly bent or twisted, about one inch long and half an inch in diameter. Internally it is whitish and speckled with yellowish brown dots, which under a lens are seen to contain an oily and resinous looking matter, which in another species (. A . lancea, Thunb.), according to Hanbury (‘ Science Papers,’ p. 255), is not removed by water, alcohol or ether.
According to a writer in New Remedies, January 1877, and quoted in the Pharmaceutical Journal ,* “ Biaku juszu” is much used, as well as the root of Sad juzu or So jutsu ( Atractylis lancea), as an anti¬ febrile remedy in Japan. In China it is used as a tonic, stimulant, diaphoretic and diuretic.
The Japanese name signifies, biak, white, yitz or jutsu, atractylis, and is possibly given in allusion to the pale under-surface of the leaves, since the flowers are red. The plant appears to have somewhat the habit of the Serratula tinctoria of this country. It grows in damp places by waysides, and flowers in October. The root is the part used in medicine. The drug mentioned under Atractylodes alba, in Dr. Porter Smith’s ‘ Chinese Materia Medica ’ has the same written character for which Peh-shuh (white shuh) is given as the equivalent sound. His specimens of the root are evidently those of a nearly allied, but different species, being almost globular, and of a more fragrant and slightly different odour. Several species of this genus appear to be used in China under the name of “ Shuh.”
Boo rung (42) -.— Eulalia Japonica, Tim. ; To eiwa, Ito raja, raja, Miq. Prol. p. 177 ; Obanna, Sussuri, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 42; Fuku, Tsirusits, Tsirube, Sasadsitz, Sasa.
Syn. Meguri, Koempf. Amcen. p. 899, Fr. et Sav. vol. ii. p. 182.
Boo kung consists of very small pieces, much re-
* Yol. vii., [3], p. 675.
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
5
sembling in general appearance the Triticum repens of English pharmacies, but the pieces rarely exceed a quarter of an inch in length. The taste is slightly sweet; the odour scarcely any.
According to Dr. Porter Smith, Boo kung, or as the Chinese pronounce it Mau-ken — for the written character is the same in both languages — is a generic name for the roots of grasses and sedges. He refers the Chinese drug to Saccharum spicatum, which is also known in Japan under the name of Boo and Tsubanna according to Thunberg.
This grass is not unfrequent in damp copses in various parts of Japan, and flowers in August.
Biak-mong-dau . Ker.).
(28) : — ( Ophiopogon J aponicus,
Syn. Jano hige, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. vi, fig. 45, under Fluggea Japonica , Kunth., Jamma sob, Jawrang; Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 139; under Convallaria Japonica, L.; Mondo, Biakfmondo, Riuno Fige, Kcempf. Amoen. Exot. p. 823 and fig. p. 824 ; Mih-mun'-tung, Hanbury ‘ Science Papers/ p. 256, with fig. of tubercules ; Djia- no-shige, Fr. et Sav. vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 85.
The tubercules which form the drug are about two- thirds of an inch in length and one-eighth of an inch in diameter, of a yellowish- white colour and have a central thread running through them. They evi¬ dently consist of dilatations of the cortieal portion of the rootlets, the central thread being the meditullium. The taste is sweetish.
In China the drug is considered to be a pectoral and probably answers the same purpose in Japan.
The plant yielding these tubercules is common in uncultivated places in Japan, flowering in October or November. There are several varieties of the plant, var. genuinus being small, and vars. umbrosus and Wallichianus larger plants. Kcempfer also alludes to another species growing near Satsuma, which has larger roots and is called Temondo. In the S6 mokou Zoussetz, both Ophiopogon spicatus and 0. Japonicus, (Fluggea Japonica ) are described as “Mong dau” according to Mr. Takemura, but 0. spicatus is Called large and 0. Japonicus small “Mong- dau.” The Chinese character for Men-tung is exactly the same as the Japanese for Mong-dau. The Japanese specimens are, however, smaller than those from China. The name mong-dau means literally mong, gate, dau , winter, probably on account of the plant flowering at the commencement of winter, and biak, white, in allusion to the white flowers.
Tsiku-setz nin-jin (27) : — Aralia edulis, Sieb.(?)
Syn. Udo, Do-tooki, Sieb. et Zucc. p. 57 ; Doku quatz, Dosjen, Koempf. Amoen. p. 826 ; Aralia cordata , Thunb. (p. 127) F. et Sav. vol. i. p. 191.
In external appearance and size this drug bears a strong resemblance to the rhizome of Polygonatum officinale (Solomon’s Seal) ; the disc-like scars left by the aerial stems are, however, arranged in a some¬ what spiral manner, and are rarely more than half an inch apart. The transverse section of the root is of a dirty white colour, horny consistence, and is marked near the circumference with a ring of linear, loosely packed, radiating, vascular bundles. The taste is bitter. The rhizome has no distinctive odour.
The Japanese name, according to Mr. Takemura, means bamboo-knotted-ginseng, tsiku meaning bamboo, setz a knot or joint, and nin-jin ginseng,
or in other words a root similar to ginseng, but having scars like those of the bamboo rhizome.
The above identification is given with uncertainty, as I have not been able to obtain either authenticated specimens of the root of Aralia edulis or a description of it. It is said to be often cultivated in Japan, and is also found wild, flowering in October. When young it is called sika, when older udo, and when mature dosjen, according to Koempf er.
(To be continued).
COPAIBIC ACID.*
BY WARREN B. RUSH, PH. G.
In preparing copaibic acid the volatile oil must first be removed, which is usually done by distillation with steam. The oil is, however, much more readily separated on a small scale by one of the following processes : First, by dissolving ten parts of copaiba in ten parts of benzin, adding an equal part of caustic soda solution, sp. gr. T30, and agitating well ; or, secondly, by mixing ten parts of copaiba, ten parts of alcohol and four parts of soda solution, when the mixture will separate into three layers. A third and most economical way for separating the volatile oil is to shake together three parts of the soda solution with one of the copaiba. After separation, pour off the volatile oil, decant the alkali solution, pass a stream of water over the resin, to wash off adhering particles of alkali, and let it dry. Next, dissolve the resins in benzin, and agitate the solution with very diluted hydrochloric acid until the aqueous liquid remains slightly acid to litmus. Let the mixture rest until the resin and water have separated, decant the water and evaporate the benzin solution to a thick syrupy mass, and let cool. The same resins are thus obtained which are left on the distillation of the volatile oil.
I have observed that if the percentage of oil is below 55 then the oil does not separate, there being sufficient resin to hold the volatile oil combined, and in this con¬ dition some of the later is oxidized or altered. It may be separated from the resin by dissolving in benzin or alcohol and treating as above.
The resinous residue left after the separation of the oil contains an acid, a neutral and a soft resin. The following are among the processes for the isol%tion of the different resins of copaiba : Liquefy the resins by the heat of a water-bath, pour into about twice the weight of petroleum benzin, stir until dissolved, filter, and let evaporate spontaneously. A few particles will remain on the filter, consisting of the usual impurities. Warm the residue left by evaporation over a water-bath and pour it into three times its quantity of alcohol ; or heat the alcohol to boiling, mix thoroughly, and while hot filter. The portion left on the filter is the neutral resin. Set the filtrate aside for several days to crystallize. Treat a portion of the neutral resin with hot alcohol, and if it colours the alcohol there is left behind some of the acid resin, and this maybe obtained by treatment with hot al¬ cohol and adding the filtrate to the first.
The neutral resin is a yellowish powder, without taste or odour, neutral to test paper; it softens in alcohol and is soluble in ten times its weight of hot chloroform.
After crystals have formed in the alcoholic liquid, filter, and dry on the filter paper under glass. On distill¬ ing off the alcohol from the filtrate, the soft resin is left behind. Copaibic acid may also be obtained from the resin by dissolving it in benzin, filtering and evaporating. The residue is heated to 200° F., dissolved in pure naphtha, filtered while warm and set asid to crystallize, after which the crystals are dried under glass.
Of the other processes which have been tried, the following deserve to be briefly mentioned.
Dissolve the oleo-resin in caustic ammonia (sp. gr. 95),
* From the American Journal of Pharma June, 1879
G
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1ST?.
and expose this in a shallow dish at a temperature below 63° F., until hardened ; then dissolve in wood naphtha, crystallize and filter. Expose copaiva to the air in shallow dishes until it has become hard and brittle, dissolve it in ammonia water and leave to evaporate in a cool place ; then dissolve in hot alcohol, filter and set aside to crystal¬ lize. Dissolve the resins left after the distillation of volatile oil in caustic ammonia, let evaporate, disssolve in hot alcohol, filter and set aside to crystallize. The alcohol may be partly recovered in these different processes by distillation.
The crystals cannot be easily obtained without the previous separation of the volatile oil, the acid being soluble in fixed and volatile oils. Doubtless the copaiva yielding the largest amount of resins will produce the most acid.
Copaibic acid forms soft prismatic crystals, which are soluble in strong alcohol, ether, fixed and volatile oils. Its alcoholic solution reddens litmus, is not precipitated by potasia or soda, yields 'with an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead a crystalline precipitate ; but, on adding it to an alcoholic solution of nitrate of silver, no pre¬ cipitate is occasioned until a little ammonia is added. A white crystalline powder falls, which is with difficulty soluble in alcohol but readily soluble in ammonia.
THE ALKALOID OF MIO-MIO (BACCHAEIS CORIDIFOLIA).*
BY PEDRO N. ARATA.
The Mio-Mio ( Bacchciris coridifolia , Lam.) is a Com¬ posite plant abundant in the Banda Oriental del Uruguay, the Argentine Republic and Brazil. The notoriety which this plant has acquired in these countries is due to the toxic action which it exercises upon the animal organism, it being the cause of considerable losses of sheep and cattle to the farmers, and it is the more dreaded because the animals confound it with the healthy pasture among which it grows. The author reports that he has obtained from this plant an alkaloid in sufficient quantity to allow of the following description.
The dry powdered plant was boiled with distilled water in a porcelain capsule and the water separated by decantation, the operation being repeated until the material was completely exhausted. The united liquors were filtered and evaporated, at first over a fire, and afterwards in a water-bath, to the consistence of an ex¬ tract, which was mixed with double its weight of a mixture of caustic lime and magnesia and the evaporation was then continued to dryness. The product was pul¬ verized and digested for forty-eight hours with amylic alcohol in a closed vessel with frequent agitation, then thrown on a filter ; the filtrate of amylic alcohol upon evaporation left the alkaloid in a crystalline form.
Amylic alcohol is preferable to ether in this operation as it dissolves the alkaloid very readily, especially with heat, and a saturated solution deposits a very voluminous crystalline mass. Under the microscope the crystals appear as long delicate needles, sometimes united and radiating from a common centre so as to form stars.
Water dissolves the alkaloid sparingly ; ether and alcohol dissolve it with more facility, but it is not very soluble in them ; the best solvent is amylic alcohol.
Dissolved in water the alkaloid gives neither an alkaline nor an acid reaction, it showing no change of colour with vegetable reagents. It dissolves with greater facility in boiling water to which some drops of acetic acid have been added. The acetate that results is fairly soluble in boiling water, but upon cooling the liquid becomes turbid as if concentrated, the turbidity disappearing upon the addition of more water.
The solution of the acetate gave the following re-
* Abstract of a paper in the ‘ Annales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina,’ vol. iv., p. 34.
actions With sodium phosphomolybdate or phospho- molybdic acid a greenish yellow precipitate, disappearing when heated and reappearing on cooling ; with potassium iodohydrargyrate, a yellowish white precipitate ; with the double iodide of cadmium and potassium, a light crystalline precipitate ; with potassium platinocyanide, a very marked turbidity ; with platinum chloride, a light yellow precipitate, disappearing when heated and reap¬ pearing on cooling ; with gold chloride or picric acid, a yellowish precipitate ; with potassium iodoiodide or sodium phosphoantimoniate, a reddish yellow precipitate ; with phosphotungstic acid or mercury bichloride, a white precipitate; with potassium ferrocyanide, an abundant white precipitate ; with potassium ferricyanide, a dark green coloration when heated ; with sodium nitro- prussiate, a coloration, and with sodium phosphoanti¬ moniate, potassium sulphocyanide or potassium bichromate, no change. The author considers that the foregoing reactions demonstrate that this substance is an alkaloid and he has named it “ baccarina.”
Some physiological experiments made upon a sparrow have proved that baccarina exercises a toxic action, and further investigation in this direction has been undertaken by Professor Pirovano. Senor Arato promises to study the elementary composition of the alkaloid and its salts with a fresh quantity of material.
THE DISCOVERY OF MINERAL WAX, OZOCERITE,
IN UTAH.*
BY PROFESSOR J. S. NEWBERRY.
I have obtained some of the recently-discovered ozocerite in Salt Lake City from Professor J. E. Clayton, to whom also I am chiefly indebted for such information as I have in regard to its place and manner of occurrence. He writes me as follows : — “ The geographical position of the ozocerite deposits is in the Wahsatch Range, on the head waters of the Spanish Fork, east from the South End of Utah Lake. The material has been found saturating beds of brown and bluish shales, probably of Tertiary age, and in masses of various dimensions, more or less mingled with clay. These shales extend from the San Pete valley in a north-north-east direction for a distance of fifty or sixty miles, and the width of the area or basin which they occupy is at the middle point about twenty miles. The shale beds richest in paraffin vary in thickness from twenty to sixty feet, but there is no considerable accumulation of that substance on the surface, nor would this be possible, as it would be destroyed by the autumnal fires which sweep the country. I examined portions of this region two years ago for coal, and found in the oil shales a few thin seams, and saw the wax-like exudation in several places, but only in small quantity.”
Other parties in Salt Lake informed me that the paraffin itself is sometimes twenty feet thick, and that the quantity is enormous ; but Professor Clayton says that such statements are not authorized by any facts which have come under his observation.
In the above remarks I have called the earth wax of Utah ozocerite. As it has been stated to be zietrisikite, I may s ty that on my return from the West, my son and assistant, Spencer B. Newberry, made a series of careful experiments in my laboratory of these hydrocarbons, and with authentic specimens which I have received directly from Gallicia. He found that it had a melting point of 6U5° C., that it was completely soluble in a large volume of boiling ether, and that boiling alcohol extracted from it twenty per cent, of a white wax-like substance. It seems, therefore, to be certainly ozocerite and not zietri¬ sikite, the latter melting at 90° C., and being insoluble in ether.
From t ne a mencan Journal of /Science and Art, April, 1879, p. 340. Reprinted from the American Journal of Pharmacy, June, 1879.
July 5, 1879. ]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
7
Sfa jhanmaqulual Jaapal.
- » . .
SATURDAY, JULY 5, 1879.
Communications for the Editorial department of this Journal , books for review , etc., should be addressed to the Editor, 17, Bloomsbury Square.
Instructions from Members and Associates respecting the transmission of the Journal should be sent to Mr. Elias Bremridge, Secretary , 17, Bloomsbury Square, W.C.
A dvertisements , and payments for Copies of the Journal, Messrs. Churchill, New Burlington Street , London , W. Envelopes indorsed “ Pharm. JournP
THE CONFERENCE MEETING.
Within a few weeks the British Pharmaceutical Conference — guided as usual by the British Asso¬ ciation in the selection of a locality for the annual gathering — will again visit Yorkshire, as our readers will be reminded by the report which appears in the present number of the Journal of the proceedings of the Executive Committee last Wednesday. Those who have experience of the cordial reception the members of the Conference met with in Bradford will not need to be assured an equally hearty welcome probably awaits them in Sheffield, and those who have not had the experience will have heard quite enough of the agreeable nature of the first meeting in York¬ shire to make them anxious to participate in the enjoyment of the one now about to be held.
For these reasons we anticipate that the desire to attend the Conference will be very general, and con¬ sidering the central situation of Sheffield, as well as the marked prominence of Yorkshire pharmacists in the endeavour to advance the interests of the body to which they belong, we venture to think these com¬ bined inducements and the prospect of being able to combine benefit with pleasure, will outweigh even the depressing influence of “ bad times ” and 11 bad weather” with such effect as to make the meeting at Sheffield one the most largely attended that has been known since the Conference has been in existence.
There is one circumstance of no small moment to the attendants at such a gathering as the Pharma- maceutical Conference which seemed, up to within the last few days, to furnish ground for apprehension. It is a somewhat exasperating thing to find, after having responded to the kindly invitation of friends to pay a visit to their town, that the local Boniface, in the shape either of an over keen individual, or of an imposing Board of limited liability organization, intervenes between host and guest, holding out his cap with exorbitant demands for the payment of black mail as the sole condition upon which oppor¬ tunity for friendly intercourse will be allowed. But such things do happen sometimes, and we regret having to remember that a notable instance of the kind was furnished when the Conference last met in Yorkshire. Hotel charges multiplied fourfold to those known to be visitors, and kept at the ordinary rate for chance comers., is a form of purse- cutting
that under any conditions would require more than ordinary meekness and pecuniosity to be endured, and that is, we think, especially impolitic at a time when the hotelkeepers have no reason to complain of lack of business.
There was some reason to apprehend that this eminently vicious system of taking undue advantage of a full demand for hotel accommodation would be put in practice at Sheffield and that it would have had the effect of deterring many from going there. But we are glad to learn that arrangements have been made to prevent the rapacity of hotelkeepers being an obstacle to intending visitors. According to a communication just received from Mr. Maleham, the local secretary of the Committee for the Sheffield meeting, a reasonable scale of charges has been fixed at one or two of the hotels where a number of rooms have already been secured, and where Mr. Maleham offers to secure accommodation for members of the Conference if they will only make early application to him stating what they require.
We think, therefore, this notification holds out the certainty of being able to secure a comfortable pied d terre and that we can without any risk urge upon those who are already habitues of the Con¬ ference gatherings not to omit taking advantage ot this opportunity for scientific and social intercourse, while at the same time we recommend those who have not hitherto done so to make the experiment under the favourable auspices now presented and with such fair prospect of realizing the pleasurable as well as profitable results which the President of the Sheffield Pharmaceutical and Chemical Associa¬ tion spoke of at the last annual meeting of that Association as having been experienced by himself on the occasion of his visit to Dublin last year.
Sheffield is a town which is of interest in various ways in a pharmaceutical point of view. It has always taken a prominent position in pharmaceutical as well as in general politics. For some years it sent a member to 1 the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society who, though less aggressive than one of the members of Parliament who represents the borough, on a subsequent occasion led the van of the band of malcontents that came down with a stern front upon the Council to remonstrate against its supposed disregard of trade interests. It cannot, however, be said that even in that position he excited any less kindly feeling towards himself than he did while holding the position of member of the Council. But at the British Pharmaceutical Conference discussion of political questions is not permitted, and whatever may be the individual differences of opinion on such subjects between those who meet at Sheffield, we feel sure they will in no way interfere on that occasion with that friendly intercourse amongst the followers of pharmacy which it is the object of the Conference to promote. On the contrary we antici¬ pate that political war paint of all colours will be washed off for the time and that even timid conser-
8
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1879
vatives and uncompromising Tories will have no occasion to fear being subjected to the vengeance of the peculiar institution for which Sheffield is famous.
Sheffield itself has but little claim to beauty, though occupying a very fine situation upon a natural amphitheatre of hills ; but it is surrounded by some of the most lovely scenery in the Kingdom, partly in Derbyshire and partly in Nottinghamshire. The tovrn is the centre of the steel trade, formerly the cutlery ware was the chief article of manufacture ; but since the introduction of the Bessemer method of producing steel, this material has been applied for armour plating of ships and other heavy purposes, and the manufacture of these products has been carried out extensively in Sheffield.
In other respects the situation of Sheffield is one calculated to induce every one who can spare the time to spend a few days in visiting the immediate neighbourhood. On the east lies the district of Sherwood Forest formerly the resort “Of Robin Hood and Little John;
Of Scarlet, George k Green and Much the Miller’s Son, Of Tuck the merry Friar, which many a sermon made In praise of Robin Hood, his outlaws and their trade.”
Here, between Mansfield and Worksop, is the famous “ Dukery,” including Clumber and Welbeck Abbey, the seats of the Dukes of Newcastle and Portland, where interesting traces of the ancient forest are still preserved. Close by is Newstead Abbey, one of the most beautiful buildings of the kind in the country. On the west, within a few miles of Sheffield, is Chatsworth, “ the palace of the Peak,” and seat of the Duke of Devonshire, sur¬ rounded by scenery which in its way is quite unrivalled. Somewhat further west is Buxton, near the rise of the Derbyshire Wye, with the famous mineral springs that have made it a celebrated watering place, one yielding water having a tempe¬ rature of 82° F., and the other yielding cold water at a distance of not more than a foot apart.
“ Unto St. Anne the fountain sacred is ;
With waters hot and cold its sources rise,
And in its sulphur veins there medicine lies.
This cures the palsied members of the old,
And cherishes the nerves grown stiff and cold. Crutches the lame unto to its brink convey, Returning, the ingrates fling them away.”
This water is in both instances remarkable for its purity, clearness and transparency, and it is used both for drinking and for baths. The use of it for these purposes dates back to a very remote period. Remains of a Roman bath have been discovered, and in the middle ages the chapel of St. Anne was the re¬ sort of numerous devotees in search of health. This practice was interfered with at the time of the Re¬ formation, but in the reign of Elizabeth the Buxton waters again came into repute and caused the place tp be the resort of great numbers of nobility and gentry, who were crowded into low wooden sheds
and regaled with oat cake and a viand which the hosts called mutton, but the guests suspected to be dog. The accommodation for visitors has improved since then, however, and it may be ventured upon without fear of the dog.
Matlock Bath further south has in its neighbour¬ hood some of the most striking scenery in Derby¬ shire, which was described by Lord Byron as equal to anything in Greece or Switzerland. The lime¬ stone caverns and the several tors near Matlock are objects of considerable interest. The mineral springs of Matlock are less celebrated than those of Buxton and the water is chiefly used for bathing ; it is highly impregnated with carbonic acid and carbonate of lime, which is deposited when the gas escapes. Owing to this circumstance any object over which the water passes continuously in a thin layer becomes coated or incrusted with the deposited calcareous materials which are locally called petrifactions.
The limestone districts of Derbyshire abound in ferns and fossil remains, as well as minerals, that afford scope for the exercise of botanical and mineral- ogical skill, and to the geologist the country presents numerous features of interest.
FLOWER FARMING IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
In a report on the Botanic Garden and Govern¬ ment Plantations of Adelaide, South Australia, for the year 1878, Dr. Schomburgk speaks favourably of the introduction of flower farming for the purposes of perfumery, but he thinks the further application of the produce in the manufacture of perfumes would be better done elsewhere than in the colony. Dr Schomburgk illustrates the importance of the matter by reference to the quantities of perfume consumed. According to him, British India and Europe consume about 150,000 gallons of handkerchief perfume yearly, and the English revenue from eau de Cologne alone is about ,£8000 a year, while the total revenue from imported perfumes is estimated at about £40,000 a year. One great perfume distillery at Cannes is said to use annually some 100,000 lbs. of acacia flowers, Acacia farnesiana, 140,000 lbs. of rose flower leaves, 32,000 lbs. of jasmine blossoms, 20,000 lbs. of tuberose, besides a great many other sweet herbs. These data will serve to show that the quantity of material used as perfume is immense, and that in the genial climate of South Australia the production of the raw material for extracting the fragrant essential oils is likely to be a successful enterprise.
A MARK OF BARBARISM.
According to a writer in the Chicago Pharmacist , the United States Government having recently applied to the German Government for information as to the number of patent medicines and the extent to which they were sold in Germany, a polite reply ' was sent that as that country was now civilized patent medicines had no existence in it.
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
9
Stations 0j[ tlje ||arntaptical
MEETING OE THE COUNCIL.
Wednesday, July 2, 1879.
MR. GEORGE WEBB SANDFORD, PRESIDENT.
MR. GEORGE FREDERICK SCHACHT, VICE-PRESIDENT.
Present — Messrs. Atkins, Bottle, Churchill, Frazer, Gostling, Greenish, Hainpson, Hills, Richardson, Rim- mington, Robbins, Savage, Shaw, Sjmes, Williams and Woolley.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Weights and Measures Act.
The President in reference to the Weights and Measures Act, said it had occurred to him whether the half-scruple had not been intended to be recognized under the half-drachm. Looking at the table adopted, it would be found that the words used were 1J scruple or half- drachm and he thought probably the half-scruple was intended to be authorized.
The Inaugural Address in October.
The President read a letter from Dr. Tilden, agreeing to deliver the Inaugural Address to the students in Octo¬ ber next, in accordance with a resolution of Council passed last month.
The name of Mr. Rimmington was added to the Benevolent Fund Committee, having been accidentally omitted.
The Sale of Food and Drugs Bill.
The President drew attention to this Bill now before the House of Lords, where it had been read a first time. He said there was nothing in it specially affecting chemists and druggists, but he found a provision that prosecutions should in all cases be instituted within a reasonable time, in the cases of perishable articles not exceeding twenty-eight days. Who was to be the judge of what was a reasonable time, he did not know.
Mr. Woolley asked if it would not be possible to in¬ troduce a clause providing that a reasonable time should be allowed for the return of summonses under this Act. He had known of a case where a summons was served on Saturday and heard in court on the Monday. If assist¬ ance had not been at hand, and great efforts used ta get evidence, the defendant would probably have been con¬ victed.
The President said if it was considered desirable, an effort might be made to insert some provision of the kind referred to .
Mr. Rimmington said it would be easy in such cases to obtain an adjournment.
Mr. Robbins said it must be the fault of the summon¬ ing officer.
Mr. Savage said no doubt in such a case an adjourn¬ ment would be obtained on asking, but it might entail expense on the defendant.
After some further conversation it was unanimously resolved, on the motion of Mr. Woolley, that an en¬ deavour be made to obtain the insertion of a clause providing that no summons under the Act should be returnable in less than three days.
At a subsequent stage of the proceedings —
The President said he found that the discussion on this point might have been saved if the Bill had been looked at more carefully, for the last line stated that no summons should be returnable in less than seven days.
The New Bye-Laws.
A communication was read from the Privy Council signifying that the Privy Council had approved the new bye-laws recently passed by the Society.
The following being duly registered as Pharmaceutical Chemists were respectively granted a diploma stamped with the seal of the Society : —
Gibbs, Robert Darton.
Howard, George William.
Hoyle, Richard Ashworth.
Mann, George Frederick.
Elections.
MEMBERS.
Pharmaceutical Chemists.
The following, having passed the Major examination and tendered their subscriptions for the current year, were elected “ Members ” of the Society: —
Gibbs, Robert Darton . Wednesbury.
Howard, George William ...Tunbridge Wells. Hoyle, Richard Ashworth ...Rawtenstall.
Mann, George Frederick . Wells, Norfolk.
Chemists and Druggists.
Butterfield, William . . Blackburn.
Fox, Alfred Russell . Sheffield.
ASSOCIATES IN BUSINESS.
The following, having passed the respective examina¬ tions, being in business on their own account, and having tendered their subscriptions for the current year, were elected “ Associates in Business ” of the Society : —
Minor.
Rouse, Fi-ederick William ...Clapliam.
Modified.
Evelyn, William Francis . Truro.
ASSOCIATES.
The following, having passed the Minor examination and tendered their subscriptions for the current year, or paid as Apprentices or Students, were elected “Asso¬ ciates” of the Society : —
Bucher, William Henry . Crediton.
Cherrington, Geo. WiddowsonLondon.
Dobson, George Turner . Holsworth}^.
Gamble, Arthur Gompertz ...Grantham.
Gordelier, Frank Heward ...Sittingbourne.
Holmes, William Albert . Kendal.
Hugill, Arthur Major . London.
Isaac, John Percy . London.
Jelley, George William . Coventry.
Jenner, William Edward ...Sandgate.
Kirk, William Peele . Retford.
Milner, Thomas . Thirsk.
Richardson, William Henry. .Boston Spa.
Scammell, Luther Robert ...Adelaide.
Smith, Frederick Adolphus... Macclesfield.
Thomas, John . Aberystwith.
Williams, James Edward ...Louth.
Williams, Thomas Henry ...Plymouth.
APPRENTICES OR STUDENTS.
The following, having passed the Preliminary examina¬ tion and tendered their subscriptions for the current year, were elected “ Apprentices or Students ” of the Society : —
Barber, William . Shefford.
Barton, Francis . Guernsey.
Cooper, William Ecklee . Upton-on-Severn.
Cox, Frederick John . Newark.
Harrison, Peter Webster ...St. Helens.
Hope, Arthur Peach . Uppingham.
Lewis, Jonas Henry . London.
Mackenzie, Donald . Dingwall.
Pope, Albert Harry . Southport.
Robinson, George Duncan R.York.
Taylor, James . Bayswater.
Watson, William Malcolm ...Southport.
Willis, Joseph Danin gton ...Northampton. .
10
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS
[iuly 5, 1879.
Several persons were restored to their former status in the Society upon payment of the current year’s subscrip¬ tion and a fine.
The names of the following persons, who have severally made the required declarations and paid a fine of one guinea were restored to the Register of Chemists and Druggists :
William Henry Fisher, 37, Beresford Road, London, N.
Alexander Scott Hill, 68, Devonshire Road, Hollo¬ way, London, N.
Charles Edward Mitchell, 31, Cottenham Road, Holloway, London, N.
Charles Wilkinson, 4, Raglan Street, Coventry.
Additions to the Register.
The Secretary reported that
Charles Robert Fenn, 83, Regency Street, London, S.W.
and
Augustus Thomas Isaac, Orange, New South Wales, having made statutory declarations that they were in business before the passing of the Pharmacy Act, 1868, and these declarations having been duly supported by medical practitioners, their names had been placed on the Register.
Payment of Subscriptions.
Mr. Greenish drew attention to the case of a member who had handed his subscription to a traveller in April last, but the latter forgot to tender it to the Secretary until May 1, when the Secretary said he was unable to receive it, as the gentleman’s name had been struck off the list of members.
The President said such cases sometimes occurred in the country, where the subscriptions were paid to the local secretaries in time, but were not forwarded to the office. In such cases he apprehended, the local secre¬ taries being representatives of the Society, the members were entitled to be retained on the list.
Mr. Bottle said in the case before the Council the traveller was not its agent and he could not see how the bye-law could be departed from. The only thing that could be done would be to restore the member on pay¬ ment of the minimum fine.
Mr. Greenish said he believed the traveller through whose forgetfulness the difficulty arose was willing to pay the fine himself, but the member would not allow it.
Mr. Symes suggested that in the case of country mem¬ bers it would be much better that they should forward their subscriptions direct to the office, and be entitled to deduct the cost of the post office order.
Mr. Atkins thought the gentleman in question had a grievance. He had complied in spirit, if not in letter, with the regulations.
Mr. Schacht asked if a post office order received on May 1 would be taken.
The Secretary said if the envelope 'bore the postmark of April 30, it would be received, being taken as a pay¬ ment in April. It was stated continually in the Journal that April 30 was the last day on which subscriptions could be received.
Mr. Hampson thought the Secretary had cut the ground from under his own feet. If he received a post office order on May 1, why should not he receive cash, which was better?
Mr. Churchill thought the office was made for the convenience of subscribers, not the subscribers for the convenience of the office. He would move that the gen¬ tleman’s name be restored without a fine.
The Secretary said he would rather pay the fine himself.
Mr. Robbins thought this case should be dealt with the same as that of a person who sent a post office order.
The Secretary read the resolution under which he had acted for several years past, under which all sub*
criptions not paid in March were applied for directly
by himself, notice thereof being sent to the local secre¬ taries.
Mr. Richardson thought the Council must support the authority of its officers. The line must be drawn somewhere.
Mr. Williams said the officers must act according to the bye-laws.
The Assistant Secretary explained that subscrip¬ tions that came to hand after the office was opened on the 1st of May were not received. Remittances found in the letter-box before the office opened on that day were received.
Mr. Frazer said as soon as a post office order was issued, the money became virtually the property of the Society. There was a wide difference between that and paying money to an outsider who might do anything he liked with it.
Mr. Bottle suggested that a half -guinea, which the gentlemen in question had sent at the same time as a sub¬ scription to the Benvolent Fund, be received as the fine. The bye-laws did not say to what the fine should be applied.
This recommendation did not meet with any approval.
Mr. Greenish said the gentleman felt he had a griev¬ ance, and he himself did think it was a pity that, under the circumstances, the money had not been received.
The Vice-President also thought the rules had been carried out with greater strictness than necessary. He understood that cheques were received and he did not see that the agency of a banker was different to that of any other person.
The President said there was no doubt that this case was clearly within the rules, but he did not think the good of the Society was promoted by over strictness in such a matter. With regard to the question of local secretaries receiving subscriptions he hoped the Council would agree to a resolution proposed by M r. Greenish : —
“That the regulations regarding the closing of the Registrar’s accounts with local secretaries, so far as regards annual subscriptions being paid before the 1st of JMay, be referred to the Finance Committee for consideration and report.”
Mr. Williams suggested that the resolution should be enlarged, and that the Committee should consider the whole question of local secretaries collecting subscrip¬ tions at all.
Mr. Rimmington thought it would be a great incon¬ venience to country members if local secretaries were not empowered to collect subscriptions.
Mr. Savage said he should not object to the scope of the inquiry being enlarged, but he agreed with Mr. Rim¬ mington that it would be a disadvantage to the Society to alter the regulation.
The President said the mover had consented to the addition of the words “ and to consider the desirability of relieving local secretaries from the duty of receiving subscriptions.”
The motion was carried unanimously.
Reports of Committees.
FINANCE.
The report of this Committee was received and adopted, and various accounts ordered to be paid.
The Vice-President drew attention to the increase in the gas account as compared with the same quarter last year. The Committee was unable to explain how it occurred, and he should like to know if any experiment had been made with a view to test if any leak existed ; for instance, if the state of the meter had been carefully taken at night and in the morning, all burners having been carefully turned out in the meantime.
The Secretary said that Professor Redwood, himself, and the gasfitter were now carefully investigating the matter, and he hoped to be able to place some statistics before the next meeting of the Committee.
Several other suggestions were made with regard to the mode of examining and checking the accounts.
July 5, 1679.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
11
BENEVOLENT FUND.
The report of this Committee included recommenda¬ tions of the following grants : —
£15 to a member of the Society, in business for fifteen years, but latterly suffering from sickness.
£10 to a member of the Society, aged 69, having failed in business and being unable to obtain a situation.
£5 to a registered chemist and druggist (female), who has had three previous grants of £10 each.
£10 to the widow of a late member. Applicant has had five previous grants.
£15 to the widow of a registered chemist and druggist, having three children dependent on her.
£10 to the widow of a registered chemist and druggist.
£10 to a former associate of the Society suffering fi'om ill-health.
£10 to the orphan boys of a registered chemist and druggist.
£5 to the widow of a registered chemist and druggist.
£5 to the widow of a late member who had £10 in October last.
In two other cases the Committee made no recom¬ mendations, in one instance a grant having been made very recently. Another grant had also been recommended, but the Secretary stated that he had that morning re¬ ceived information of the death of applicant.
An application had been received from the managers of the establishment in Belgium, where an orphan child had been placed, for some years past, asking if the annual payment would be renewed, as otherwise the child must be returned to her mother. The Secretary was desired to make further inquiries.
Mr. Robbins moved that in the case of the applicant who had died, the amount of the grant should be handed over to the widow.
The President thought the Council should wait and see if application were made. It was not competent to the Council to make a grant to persons on whose behalf no application had been made.
The report and recommendations of the Committee were received and adopted.
LIBRART, MUSEUM AND LABORATORY.
The report of this Committee included the usua^ report from the Librarian, to the following effect : —
Attendance during the day : highest, 29, lowest, 9, average, 21; Evening, highest, 19, lowest, 8, average, 12. Circulation of books : town, 150 ; country, 66 ; carriage paid, £1 7s. 7\d. He had also reported the following donations to the Library : —
Analytical Index to the Records known as the Remembrancia, 1579-1664 ; London, 1878.
From the Corporation of the City of London.
Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, Register of Fellow's and Associates, 1879.
From the Institute.
Berzelius (I. J.), Traite de Chimie, trad, par A. J. L. Jourdan [et M. Esslinger], 1829-33, 8 vols.
Whitlaw (C.), New Medical Discoveries, with a Defence of the Linnean Doctrine, and a Trans¬ lation of his Vegetable Materia Medica, 1829, 2 vols.
New London Dispensatory, containing a translation of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis, etc., 2 ed. ; also a translation of Magendie’s Formulary, by T. Cox and C. W. Gregory, 1835, 2 vols.
Liebig (J. v.), Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by L. Play¬ fair, 1840.
Journal de Pharmacie, 1835-6, sundry numbers.
From the Rev. C. E. Drew.
Muter (J.), Introduction to Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, 2 ed., 1879 ; Introduction to Analytical Chemistry, 2 ed., 1878.
From the Author.
Tommasi (D.), Riduzione del Cloruro di Argento e del Cloruro Ferrico, 1878; Riduzione del Cloralio, 1878 ; Azione dei Raggi Solari sui Composti Aloidi d’ Argento, 1878. Frtm the Author.
Victorian Chemists’ Assistants’ Association, Sixth Annual Report, Rules, Catalogue of Library and Museum, etc., 1879. From the Association.
Squibb (E. R.), Notes on the Estimation of Urea, and on the Revision of the United States Pharma¬ copoeia in 1880, 1879 ; Fluid Extracts by Reper¬ colation, 1879; Proposed Legislation on the Adulteration of Food and Medicine, etc., 1879.
From the Author.
The Committee recommended that the usual letters of thanks be forwarded.
The Committee recommended the purchase of the following books for the library ; —
General Fund
Wurtz (Ad.), Dictionnaire de Chimie, latest ed.
Buchoz (P.), Herbier de la Chine, 1788-9.
Hanbury Fund
Bentham (G.), Flora Hongkongensis, 1861.
Griesbach (A.), Flora of the British West India Islands, 1864.
The Curator had reported the attendance in the Museum to have been as follows : — During the day, average, 10 ; evening, average, 6. He had also reported the following donations to the Museum : —
Fresh Specimens of Biennial Henbane, from Mr. A. P. Balk will.
Specimens of the Seed of Psoralea corylifolia, from India, from Messrs. Corbyn, Stacey and Co.
A dried Ostrich Stomach, as used by the South American Iudiansfor indigestion, from Dr. Symes.
Specimens of Queensland Sassafras Bark, Queens¬ land Sandal Wood (Eremophila Mitchclli), the Stem of Piper Novce-Hollanclice, the bark of a species of Achras, known as sweet bark from Queensland, and a fine Fruit of the Trinidad Cocoa Tree, from Mr. Thomas Christy.
Three remarkably fine crystals of Codeia, from Messrs. T. and H. Smith and Co.
A new variety of Salep, the root of West Indian Ipecacuanha (Asclepias Ourassavica), false Sarsa¬ parilla from St. Vincent, and specimens of natur¬ ally crystallized Realgar, from Mons. C. Chantre.
The last specimen was obtained from a crack in the earth which served as a vent to a burning coal mine called Ricamarie, near St. Etienne.
The Curator had also reported that he had received from Dr. O. Hesse, specimens of the alkaloids to illustrate his recent paper in the Pharmaceutical Journal.
The Committee recommended that the usual letters of thanks be forwarded.
The Curator had reported that he had forwarded nine duplicate specimens to the Society’s Museum in Edin¬ burgh.
He had also reported that nineteen duplicate specimens bad been forwarded to the Leeds Chemists’ Associa¬ tion.
Professors Redwood, Bentley and Attfield had reported that the progress of their respective classses was satis¬ factory.
Professor Bentley had reported that his class had in¬ creased 25 per cent, over 1878.
The Committee recommended the purchase of the collection of Malayan specimens of materia medica offered by Mr. Collins.
The report and recommendations of the Committee were received and adopted.
Mr. Shaw said the Association at Liverpool wras now I’e-arranging the museum, and wTould be very much obliged by the Council granting a set of labels, which he understood were in possession of the Society.
The President said he had no doubt that if Mr. Shaw would specify what was wanted, and send an application
12
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1879.
to the Committee, which met next week, it would be acceded to.
HOUSE.
This Committee recommended that a memorial be addressed to the Board of Works Avith a \Tiew to getting the roadway in Great Russell Street relaid with Avood. Also some other minor matters in connection with the house.
Mr. Hills asked if any reply had been received to the memorial.
The President said it had been ascertained that it Avould be useless to make any application of the sort before Michaelmas; but if one Avere sent in then, there might be a chance of its being acceded to.
The report and recommendations Avere received and adopted.
GENERAL PURPOSES.
The report of this Committee included the usual letter from the Solicitor giving information as to the progress of cases A\Thich had been placed in his hands. In one case, the defendant, Mr. Mumby, had paid the penalty of £5 and costs. The appeal in the „case of the Society v. The London and Provincial Supply Association, Limited, A\ras not likely to come on before No\rember.
A communication Avas read from Mr. James GalloAvay, Great Horton, authorizing the erasure of his name from the register. In tAVo cases it Avas recommended that the Solicitor be instructed to commence proceedings, one of the cases having been a long time under consideration, and with regard to which a great deal of correspondence has taken place.
The President moved
“ That the Council go into Committee to consider the various items in the report.”
Mr. Symes had no objection, but thought it would be well if some reference Avere made in the report to the subjects on which the Council Avent into Committee, so that members might see that the matters referred to Avere being considered.
After some further conversation on this subject, it Avas unanimously resolved to go into Committee to consider certain cases of alleged breaches of the Pharmacy Act.
The various cases having been discussed in detail, the Council resumed, and the report and recommendations of the Committee Avere adopted unanimously.
It Avas moved by Mr. Williams, seconded by Mr. Gostling, and carried unanimously, that a certain firm of solicitors, Avho had made inquiry as to the form of appeal from a decision of the Registrar, be informed that any such appeal must be made in writing.
Appointment op Professors and Curator for the
ensuing Year.
Professor Redwood was reappointed Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy for the ensuing year.
Professor Bentley Avas reappointed Professor of Botany and Materia Medica for the ensuing year.
Professor Attfield was reappointed Professor of Prac¬ tical Chemistry for the ensuing year.
Mr. Holmes Avas reappointed Curator of the Society’s Museum for the ensuing year.
List of Local Secretaries, 1879-80.*
The following Avere proposed as Local Secretaries for the ensuing year : —
Towns eligible. Names of persons appointed.
Aberdare . Thomas, Watkin Jones.
Aberdeen . . Davidson, Charles.
Abergele . . Hannah, John.
Aberystwith . Davies, John Hugh.
Abingdon . Smith, William.
'* Local Secretaries are apj minted in all toAvns in Great Britain which return a Member or Members to Parliament, and in such other towns as contain not less than three Members of the Society or Associates in Business.
Towns eligible.
Accrington .
Altrincham . .
Andover .
Arbroath .
Ashbourne .
Ashby-de-la-Zouch . . Ashton-under-Lyne ..
Aylesbury .
Ayr .
Banbury .
Banff .
Bangor . . . .
Barnsley .
Barnstaple .
Barrow-in-Eurness ..
Bath .
Beaumaris .
Bedford .
Belper .
Berwick .
Beverley .
Bewdley .
Birkenhead .
Birmingham .
Bishop Auckland .
Blackburn .
Blackpool . . .
Blandford .
Bodmin .
Bolton .
Boston .
Bournemouth .
Bradford (Yorkshire)
Brecon .
Bridgnorth .
Bridlington .
Bridport .
Brighton .
Bristol .
Buckingham .
Burnley .
Burslem .
Bury .
Bury St. Edmunds ..
Buxton . .
Caine .
Cambridge .
Canterbury .
Cardiff .
Cardigan .
Carlisle .
Carmarthen . . .
Carnarvon
Chatham .
Chelmsford . .
Cheltenham .
Chester .
Chesterfield .
Chichester .
Chippenham .
Christchurch .
Cirencester . .
Clitheroe . .
Coclcermouth .
Colchester . .
Congleton .
Coventry .
Crewe . ,
Cricklade .
Croydon . .
Darlington .
Deal . .
Denbigh .
Derby .
Devizes . . .
Names of persons appointed. .Sprake, David Lewis. .Hughes, EdAvard.
.Gould, Robert George. .Shield, George.
.Bradley, Edwin Silvester. .Johnson, Edvvin Eli. .Bostock, William. .Turner, John.
Ball, George Vincent. Ellis, Bartlett.
Baker, Henry Villars. Badger, Alfred.
Goss, Samuel.
Steel, Thomas. Connnans, Robert Dyer.
Cuthbert, John M. Ashton, John.
Carr, William Graham. Hobson, Charles.
Nicholson, Henry. Southall, William.
.Leigh, John James. Pickup, Thomas Hartley. .Harrison, John.
Bird, Matthew Mitchell. Williams, Joel Drew. Dutton, George.
Duncan, Alexander. Rimmington, Felix W. E. Meredith, John. Deighton, Thomas Milner Forge, Christopher. Tucker, Charles.
G watkin, James Thomas, Stroud, J ohn.
Sirett, George.
Thomas, Richard. BlackshaAV, Thomas.
.Youngman, Edward. .Barnett, Alexander.
.Deck, Arthur.
.Bing, Edwin.
.Hollway, Alfred Brown. .Jones, John EdAvard. Thompson, AndreAV. .Davies, Richard M. .Lloyd, William.
.Crofts, Holmes Cheney. .Baker, Charles Patrick. .Smith, Nathaniel. .Baxter, Geoige. .Greaves, Abraham. .Long, William Elliott. .Coles, John Coles. .Green, John.
.Mason, Joseph Wright.
Bowerbank, Joseph. Cordley, William Bain?. Goode, Charles.
Wyley, John.
McNeil, James Norton.
Barritt, George. Robinson, James. Green, John. EdAvards, William. Stevenson, Richard. Evans, John.
July 5, 1879. J
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS
13
Towns eligible.
Davonport .
Dewsbury .
Diss .
Doncaster .
Dorchester .
Dorking .
Dover .
Droitwich .
Dudley .
Dumfries .
Dundee .
Dunfermline .
Durham .
Eastbourne .
Edinburgh .
Elgin .
Ely .., .
Evesham .
Exeter .
Eye .
Ealltirk .
Falmouth .
F areham .
Faversham .
Flint .
Folkestone .
Forfar .
Frome .
Gainsborough .
Gateshead .
Glasgow .
Gloucester .
Gosport .
Grantham . .
Gravesend .
Greenock .
Grimsby, Great . .
Guernsey .
Guildford . .
Haddington . •. .
Halifax .
Harrogate .
Hartlepool .
Harwich .
Hastings and St. Leonards
Haverfordwest .
Hawick . . .
Helensburgh .
Helston .
Hereford . .
Hertford .
Hexham .
Heywood .
Hitchin .
Horncastle .
Horsham .
Huddersfield .
Hull . .
Huntingdon .
Huntly .
Hyde .
Hythe .
Inverness .
Ipswich .
Jersey .
Kendal .
Kidderminster .
Kilmarnock . .
King’s Lynn .
Kingston-on-Thames .
Kirkcaldy .
Knaresborough .
Knutsford .
Lancaster .
Launceston .
Names of persons appointed. ..Codd, Francis. ..Matterson, Edward H.
. .Gostling, Thomas Preston. ..Howorth, James.
..Evans, Alfred John. ..Clift, Joseph.
..Bottle, Alexander. ..Taylor, Edmund.
..Gare, Charles Hazard. ..Allan, William.
..Hardie, James.
..Stiell, Gavin.
..Sarsfield, William. ...Gibbs, Joseph.
..Mackay, John. ..Robertson, William. ..Pate, Henry Thomas. ..Dingley, Richard Loxley. ..Delves, George.
..Bishop, Robert. ..Murdoch, David.
. .Newman, Walter Francis. ...Batchelor, Charles. ..Underdown, Fredk. W. ..Jones, Michael.
. . Goodliff e, George. ..Ranken, James A.
Spouncer, Henry Thomas. Elliott, Robert. Kinninmont, Alexander. Meadows, Henry.
Hunter, John.
Cox, John.
Clarke, Richard Feavei’. Fraser, Charles.
Botterill, George Thomas. Arnold, Adolphus. Martin, Edward W. Watt, James.
Dyer, William.
Davis, R. Hayton. Jackson, William G-. Bevan, Charles F. Jameson, William E. Williams, William.
.Harvie, George.
.Troalce, Marler H. .Jennings, Reginald. .Lines, George.
.Gibson, John Pattison. .Beckett, William. .Ransom, William.
.Kemp, William. .Williams, Philip.
.King, William.
.Bell, Charles Bains. .Provost, John Pullen. .Chalmers, George.
.Wild, Joseph.
Lemmon, Robei't Alee. .Galloway, George Ross. Anness, Samuel Richard. Ereaut, John, jun.
• Severs, Joseph.
Hewitt, George.
Borland, John.
• Palmer, Wm. Jos. Walmsley, Samuel.
• Storrar, David.
• Potter, Charles.
Silvester, Henry Thomas. Bagnall, Wm. Henry. Eyre, Jonathan Symes.
Names of persons appointed. Davis, Henry.
Reynolds, Richard. Johnson, William.
Clark, Walter Beales. Readman, William. Finlayson, Thomas. Davis, David Frederick. Martin, Thomas.
Perkins, John Jaquest. Maltby, Joseph.
Young, Richard. Abraham, Thomas Fell. Williams, Thomas. Prince, Arthur G.
Paget, John.
Hurst, John B.
Sale, Thomas J. Woodhouse, George. Thornton, Edward.
Allen, Adam U.
Bates, William Isaac. Henry, James Hay. Walton, Ralph.
Rowcroft, Albert Edward. \Y allworth, David. Brown, Francis James. Hardy, George.
Metcalfe, Edmund Henry. Wilkinson, William. Davies, Peter Hughes. Candler, Joseph Thomas.
Smyth, Walter. Robson, James Crosby.
Key, Hobson.
Burrell, George.
Birkett, John.
Marshall, George T. Hibbert, Walter.
March, William. Hickman, Frederick. Cartwright, William. Martin, Nicholas H. Orchard, Herbert Joseph. Seys, James Ancas.
Poulton, John.
Owen, Edward.
Warrior, William. Bingley, John.
.Sutton, Francis. Fitzhugh, Richard.
Iliffe, George.
.Hargraves, H. Lister. Saunders, George James. Hargreaves, Wm. Henry. Prior, George Thomas. Hatrick, William.
John, David W. ..Kirkbride, William. Cornish, Henry Robert.
Towns eligible. Leamington Leeds Leek Leicester
Leith
Leominster Lewes Lichfield Lincoln Liskeard Liverpool Llandudno Longton Loughborough Louth Lowestoft Ludlow Lyme Regis Lymington Macclesfield Macduff
Maidenhead .
Maidstone .
Maldon .
Malmesbury .
Malton .
M alvern .
Manchester’, etc.
March .
Margate .
Marlborough Marlow
Merthyr Tydvil Middlesborough
Midhurst .
Monmouth .
Montgomery ....
Montrose .
Morecambe ....
Morpeth .
Neath . .
Newark .
Newbury .
Newcastle-under-Lyme
Newcastle-on-Tyne .
Newport (I. of Wight) Newport (Mon.)
New Radnor Newton Abbot Newtown Northallerton Northampton Norwich Nottingham Nuneaton Oldham Oswestry Over Darwen
Oxford .
Paisley .
Pembroke ....
Pembroke Dock
Penrith .
Penzance .
Perth .
Peterborough . .
Petersfield .
Plymouth .
Pontefract .
Poole .
Portsmouth, etc.
Preston .
Ramsgate .
Reading .
Heanley, Marshall. Edgeler, William B. Balkwill, Alfred P. Bratley, William. Penney, William. Rastrick, Joseph L. Barnes, James.
Morton, Henry. Hayward, Wm. Griffith.
14
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1*79
Towns eligible.
Redditch .
Retford .
Richmond (Yorks) . . . .
Ripon .
Rochdale .
Rochester .
Rothesay .
Runcorn .
Rugby .
Ruthin .
Ryde (Isle of Wight) .
Rye .
St. Albans .
St. Andrews .
St. Austell .
St. Ives (Cornwall) ....
Salisbury .
Sandwich .
Scarborough .
Seacombe .
Selby . .
Shaftesbury .
Sheerness .
Sheffield .
Shields, South .
Shipley .
Shoreham . .
Shrewsbury .
Slough .
Southampton .
Southport .
Spalding .
Stafford . .
Stalvbridge .
Stamford .
Stirling . .
Stockport . .
Stockton-on-Tees .
Stoke-on-Trent .
Stourbridge .
Stratford-on-Avon
Stroud . .
Sudbury .
Sunderland . . .
Sutton-in-Ashfield . . .
Swansea .
Tamworth .
Taunton .
Tavistock .
Teignmouth .
Tenby . .
Tewkesbury .
Thirsk .
Tiverton .
Torquay .
Totnes . .
Truro .
Tunbridge Wells .
Tynemouth .
Uttoxeter . .
Wakefield .
Wallingford .
Walsall .
Wareham .
Warrington .
Warwick .
Watford .
Wednesbury . .
Wellington (Somerset)
WeDlock .
Westbury .
West Bromwich .
Weston-super-Mare
Weymouth .
Whitby . .
Names of persons appointed. .Mousley, William. .Clater, Francis. Thompson, John Thoma®. .Judson, Thomas.
.Taylor, Edward.
.Harris, Henry William. .Duncan, William. .Whittaker, William.
. Chamberlain, Arthur G-. .Bancroft, John James. Pollard, Henry Hindes. .Waters, William Allen. Ekins, Arthur Edward.
, Go van, Alexander.
.Hern, William Henry. .Young, Tonkin.
. Atkins, Samuel Ralph. Baker, Frank.
. Whitfield , J ohn.
.Walker, John Henry. .Cutting, Thomas John. .Powell, John.
.Bray, John.
.Ward, William.
.Mays, Robert J. J. .Dunn, Henry.
|
Towns eligible. |
Names of persons appointed. |
|
Whitehaven . |
|
|
Wick . |
|
|
Wigan . |
|
|
Wigton . |
|
|
Wilton . |
|
|
Winchester . |
|
|
Windsor . . |
|
|
Wolverhampton . |
|
|
Woodbridge . |
|
|
Woodstock . . |
|
|
Worcester . |
|
|
Worthing . . |
. Cortis, Arthur Brownhill. |
|
Wrexham . |
|
|
Wycombe . |
|
|
Yarmouth, Great . |
|
|
Yeovil . |
|
|
York . |
Previous to the vote being taken,
Mr. Williams said he wished to make a few observa¬ tions on the appointment of one of these local secretaries, but it being a personal matter, he must ask the Council to go into Committee.
This having been done, and the Council having resumed, the list was put to the vote and adopted unanimously.
Cross, William Gowen. Griffith, Richard.
Dawson, Oliver R. Ashton, William. Shadford, Major.
Averill, John.
Brierley, Richard.
Duncanson, William.
Kay, Samuel.
Brayshay, Thomas. Adams, Jonathan Henry. Bland, Thomas Frederick. Hawkes, Richard.
.Blake, William F. .Harding, James John. .Nicholson, John Joseph. .Buckland, E.
.Griffiths, William. Alikins, Thomas Boulton. Prince, Henry.
.Gill, William.
.Cornelius, Joseph.
Davies, Moses Prosser. Allis, Francis.
Thompson, John.
Havill, Paul.
Smith, Edward.
Keen, Benjamin.
.Percy, Thomas Bickle. Howard, Richard.
Superintendents of Written Examinations.
It was unanimously resolved that the superintendence of the written examinations be offered to the local secretaries at the centres where those examinations are held.
Mr. Churchill asked how the new plan worked. There had been complaints of the number of centres not being sufficient.
The President said there was a feeling in some quarters to reduce the number still further.
The Vice-President said there was also a feeling in many quarters that the number should be enlarged.
Mr. Shaw asked why Worcester had been continued as a local centre, when the Committee had recommended that it should be omitted ?
The President presumed the Council must have ordered it. At any rate that was not the question before the Council then.
Mr. Atkins said he still believed that individual cases of hardship had occurred from the present scheme of local centres, though on the whole the reduction in number might have been an advantage. He hoped that another year the Committee would take careful account of geographical considerations and railway facilities in deciding on these centres. He also hoped that the Pre¬ liminary examinations were still in a transition state. He should not be satisfied until this examination, which was purely a scholastic one, was removed from the Society altogether. Nothing in the world could be easier than to demand a certificate from the College of Preceptors or from a university local examination.
Johnson, John Borwell. Wice, Jonathan H. Payne, Sidney.
Elliott, George.
Randall, Thomas.
Woods, Joseph Henry. Pratt, Henry.
Chater, Edward Mitchell. Gittoes, Samuel James. .Langford, John Brown.
Taylor, Stephen.
Council Examination Prizes.
Messrs. Southall and Moss were appointed to conduct the examinations in the present month for the Council prizes.
Mr. Greenish proposed an alteration in the regula¬ tions providing that candidates should be required to give five days’ notice of their intention to compete for these prizes, instead of ten as at present.
The Assistant Secretary explained that five days would be sufficient, and, in fact, more convenient than ten.
The motion was carried unanimously.
.Gibbons, George.
.Groves, Thomas Bennett. Mr. Churchill asked who fixed the dates for the .Stevenson, John. Major examination.
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
15
Mr. Williams said the Council fixed the months. The exact days were fixed by the office, according to the number of candidates. He had proposed formerly that the examinations should take place every month instead of every alternate month, a change which, he thought, would have proved more convenient ; this suggested al¬ teration, however, did not meet with the approval of the Board of Examiners. This month there were L2 can¬ didates coming up.
Report of Examinations.
June, 1879.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Candidates.
- — - _
Examined. Passed. Failed.
Major, 18th ..... 7 4 3
Minor, 18 th . 16 8 8
„ 19th . 25—41 15-23 10-18
Modified . 2 1 1
50 28 22
Preliminary Examination.
Seven certificates were received in lieu of the Society’s examination : —
3 College of Preceptors.
4 University of Cambridge.
Sales of Poisons by Co-operative Stores.
Mr. Williams was next called upon by the President to move a resolution of which he had given notice with re¬ gard to co-operative societies selling or dispensing poisons.
The President asked if the question should be discussed in Committee.
Mr. Williams said he had no objection to what he had to say being published.
Mr. Shaw thought it was not desirable to show their hand, and on the question being put to the vote it was resolved to go into Committee.
The motion was discussed at considerable length, but on being put to the vote it was not carried.
Sale of Patent Medicines.
Mr, Hampson then moved the following resolution, of which he had given notice : —
“That the General Purposes Committee take into con¬ sideration the largely increasing sale of ‘patent medicines ’ containing scheduled poisons, by grocers, general dealers, and other unregistered persons, and report thereon, more especially with regard to the advisability of endeavouring to restrict the sale of such ‘patent medicines' to persons registered under the Pharmacy Act of 1868.”
He said he was very desirous that this Committee should take this subject into earnest consideration. It was evident to all that the sale of poisons under the cover of the patent medicine stamp was a growing evil. He heard the other day that a grocer’s as¬ sistant was asked what was the dose of chlorodyne, and replied a tea-spoonful. When the Pharmacy Act of 1868 was obtained, it was to all intents and purposes an Act for regulating the sale of poisons, but if anyone were able to sell poison upon affixing a patent medicine stamp to it, evidently the Act was of little or no use. He was told that in the country wholesale houses sent out two-ounce bottles of laudanum by the gross with a stamp on, and that opium itself was also sold in this way. Tincture of aconite was sold by grocers under a stamp, and in fact if any adventurous quack chose to put up the dilute hydro¬ cyanic acid of the Pharmacopoeia, under a stamp, and say that 2 or 3 drops were to be taken in water in case of sickness, it might be done with impunity. The time had come when this matter should be considered, for it was never intended that grocers, tailors and others should become
the vendors of poisons. If the spirit of the Act were to be carried out, those who knew something about medicines should alone sell these things. The very fact that a person had to go into a special shop in order to purchase a poison was to a certain extent a safeguard ; but if people were able to get it at any ordinary shop, the use of poisons would become so indiscriminate that a parliamentary com- misssion or inquiry would be the probable result. He did not ask the Council to come to any decision at present, but simply to refer the matter to the Committee.
Mr. Savage seconded the motion.
Mr. Hills asked if it would not be better to refer the subject to the Committee for considering amendments to the Pharmacy Act.
Mr. Hampson thought not ; that was a special Com¬ mittee for a particular purpose.
Mr. Williams said that Committee had considered that any change of the law in this direction was unneces¬ sary.
The President said the great point of the motion was patent medicines. He did not recognize a bottle of laudanum as a patent medicine simply because it had a stamp affixed to it, and he believed that if a prosecution were instituted in such a case it would be found that the law did not protect it. With regard to patent medicines he did not see that it mattered who sold them. If any one came to him for a bottle of chlorodyne, and asked him what was the nature of it, he said he did not know what it contained. In fact, he never recommended patent medicines at all, but rather discouraged the sale of them.
Mr. Greenish suggested an alteration of the wording of the motion to the effect that the Committee take into consideration the largely increasing sale of scheduled poisons by grocers and others under the guise of patent medicines.
Mr. Frazer said if patent medicines were within the law this motion was not required, and if they were not he did not think it was desirable to bring them within it for reasons which he had frequently stated. It was contrary to his notions of trade, and he did not think it would be wise, because it was very doubtful, if chemists would obtain what they asked, whilst they might most probably lose some of the privileges they at present pos¬ sessed.
Mr. Rimmington thought Mr. Greenish’s suggestion would be an improvement.
The Vice-President, on the contrary, thought Mr. Hampson’s original form was better.
Mr. Hampson also said he preferred the original word¬ ing. He demurred to the statement of the President that it did not matter who sold a bottle of chlorodyne, because it contained several scheduled poisons, and in the interest of the public as well as in justice to themselves, it was desirable that only registered persons should be allowed to sell patent medicines containing poisons. He equally demurred to Mr. Frazer’s view that a change was not necessary or desirable. Putting aside the interest of the public, which was of course paramount, it was the privilege of registered persons to deal in poisons.
The President remarked that Parliament fully con¬ sidered the question when the Pharmacy Act was passed, and said that nothing in the Act should interfere with the making or selling of patent medicines.
Mr. Frazer said his point was that if patent medicines were included in the Act there was no need of further legislation.
Mr. Hampson said he did not assume that the Council had the power to restrict the sale of patent medicines, he simply asked that the Committee should consider the matter.
Mr. Williams thought the Council was now doing the work of the Committee in discussing the merits of the question. The motion was simply that the Committee consider it and report.
The resolution was then put and carried nem. con,
16 THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS. [July 5, 1879.
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.
List of Centres and Table of Attendances of Candidates at each Centre.
|
187S. Oct. |
1879. Jan. |
1879. April. |
1879. July. |
Total num¬ ber of at¬ tendances at each Centre. |
|
|
ENGLAND AND WALES. |
|||||
|
Birmingham . |
12 |
20 |
23 |
21 |
76 |
|
Brighton . |
3 |
5 |
4 |
1 |
13 |
|
Bristol . |
6 |
6 |
9 |
12 |
33 |
|
Cambridge . |
5 |
9 |
7 |
4 |
25 |
|
Canterbury . |
— |
1 |
4 |
2 |
-T / |
|
Cardiff . |
3 |
5 |
7 |
7 |
22 |
|
Carlisle . |
6 |
7 |
2 |
10 |
25 |
|
Carmarthen . |
7 |
10 |
11 |
8 |
36 |
|
Carnarvon . |
2 |
1 |
9 |
9 |
21 |
|
Cheltenham . |
2 |
2 |
3 |
7 |
|
|
Darlington . |
3 |
7 |
6 |
6 |
22 |
|
Exeter . |
2 |
8 |
8 |
8 |
26 |
|
Hull . |
— |
16 |
13 |
5 |
34 |
|
Lancaster . |
1 |
5 |
2 |
6 |
14 |
|
Leeds . |
7 |
14 |
16 |
17 |
54 |
|
Lincoln . |
3 |
10 |
8 |
7 |
28 |
|
Liverpool . ... |
7 |
16 |
24 |
13 |
60 |
|
London . |
33 |
59 |
46 |
52 |
190 |
|
Manchester . |
18 |
26 |
32 |
20 |
96 |
|
Newcastle . |
5 |
9 |
5 |
10 |
29 |
|
Northampton . |
— |
8 |
9 |
6 |
23 |
|
Norwich . |
2 |
14 |
7 |
14 |
37 |
|
Nottingham . |
8 |
14 |
11 |
12 |
45 |
|
Oxford . |
1 |
3 |
2 |
1 |
7 |
|
Peterborough . |
2 |
3 |
5 |
15 |
25 |
|
Sheffield . |
8 |
12 |
8 |
7 |
35 |
|
Shrewsbury . |
2 |
5 |
7 |
4 |
18 |
|
Southampton . |
5 |
4 |
19 |
15 |
43 |
|
Truro . |
1 |
4 |
4 |
4 |
13 |
|
Worcester . |
2 |
5 |
2 |
2 |
11 |
|
York . |
2 |
9 |
12 |
11 |
34 |
|
SCOTLAND. |
|||||
|
Aberdeen . . |
13 |
8 |
11 |
16 |
48 |
|
Dundee . |
7 |
6 |
2 |
7 |
22 |
|
Edinburgh . |
11 |
14 |
14 |
16 |
55 |
|
Glasgow . |
3 |
12 ■ |
11 |
12 |
38 |
|
Inverness . |
2 |
3 |
2 |
7 |
|
|
Douglas, I. of Man ... |
2 |
2 |
|||
|
Guernsey . |
1 |
— |
— |
1 |
• 2 |
|
Jersey . |
0 |
||||
|
1 |
mmUtqjs of Jijientijiit Societies.
BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL CONFERENCE.
Meeting of Executive Committee.
Wednesday, July 2, 1879.
Present — G-. F. Schacht, President, in the chair ; Messrs. Greenish, Ellinor, Carteighe, Symes, Williams and Attfield.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Professor Attfield, Honorary General Secretary, re¬ ported the work done since the previous meeting of Committee, including matters relating to the editing, printing, publishing and delivery to members of the Year-Book ; the grants in aid of research ; correspondence respecting improper use of the membership of the Con¬ ference ; correspondence respecting the Bell and Hills
Fund books ; compilation and distribution of the list of subjects for research ; collection of subscriptions ; or¬ ganization of the approaching meeting at Sheffield ; cor¬ respondence with members likely to work on the Executive Committee in 1879-80 ; and, arrangements for inviting all registered chemists and druggists not already members to join the Conference.
A letter was read from Mr. Siebold, editor of the Year-Book, reporting that the manuscript of the volume for 1879 would be completed a fortnight before the annual meeting. A meeting of the Committee of Pub¬ lication was ordered to be convened as soon as the manu¬ script was received, with power to make all arrangements for the issue of the volume.
Mr. Ellinor, from Sheffield, stated that he was authorized by the Vice-President, Mr. Ward, the Local Secretary, Mr. Maleham, and the members of the Local Committee in Sheffield, to explain that rooms for the general meetings of the Conference on August 19 and 20 had been secured, that a considerable amount of interest and enthusiasm existed locally respecting the meetings, that permission had been obtained for members after the meeting to inspect some of the interesting factories of Sheffield, and that on Thursday, the 21st of August, the local members would invite their visitors to accompany them on a drive through some of the scenery of Derby¬ shire, visiting “ Chatsworth ” and “ Haddon ” en route. He ventured to think that their friends would not be disapjiointed with the welcome they would receive, even although in accordance with annually stated requests, strongly renewed this year, the idea of holding a formal banquet in honour of their guests would not be carried out.
SOCIETY OF ARTS.
The History of Alizarin and Allied Colouring
Matters, and their Production from Coal Tar.'*
BY IV. H. PERKIN, F.R.S.
Lecture I. — Delivered May 8.
In December, 1868, I had the honour of delivering three lectures before this society on the “Aniline or Coal Tar Colours.” In these I commenced with mauveine, or the mauve dye, the first discovered of this remarkable series of compounds, and then gave briefly the history of all the other important colouring matters which had been discovered up to that date.
Last year, Mr. Wills, who always arranged the busi¬ ness of this Section so assiduously, wished me to give a further account of these colouring matters, but I was unable to do so then. He, however, asked me again this year, and I was glad to be able to accede t chis request, little thinking then, and still less only a few weeks since when I met him full of activity and enthusiasm, that he would so soon be called from our midst, and his career here, so full of promise, ended.
When I promised to bring a paper before you, I thought that I would continue the history of the coal tar colours, from the time I gave the lectures just referred to up to the present time. However, on considering the subject in detail, I found the amount of matter far too large, owing to the great number of discoveries which had been made in this field since then ; I therefore thought it best to confine myself to the consideration of the most im¬ portant of the products which have been obtained, and selected alizarin and allied colouring matters.
In giving you a somewhat brief account of this subject, I think it best first to refer to madder, the dye-stuff which, until 1869, was the only source of alizarin. Up to the date just mentioned madder root was one of the most important dye-stuffs known, the annual value of the im¬ ports into the United Kingdom being about £1,000,000 sterling.
* From the Journal of the Society of Arts.
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
17
The plant that gives this root belongs to the natural order Rubiacece. It is nearly allied botanically, and in appearance, to the ordinary G-aliums, or bedstraws. It is a perennial, with herbaceous stem, which dies down every year, the stalk is square and jointed, and this and the leaves are rough with prickles. The flower is very small, and of a greenish yellow colour. The root is cylindrical and fleshy, and of a reddish yellow colour ; this, when dried, constitutes madder. It is one of the oldest known dye-stuffs, and is referred to by Pliny. The principal varieties in cultivation are — Rubia tinctorum, Rubia pere- grina, and Rubia cardifolia. It is grown in Holland, South of Germany, France, Italy, Turkey and India. It has been cultivated also in this country, but not with permanent success. It is propagated from suckers, and the time from planting until the roots are drawn is from eighteen to thirty months, and sometimes longer. When dried the roots lose their reddish yellow colour and become of a pale red shade. The process of drying is conducted in the air, or in kilns. When dry the roots are beaten to remove sand, clay and loose skin. They are sent into the market either in this condition or in a ground state. There are also various preparations of madder made, the principal ones being Fleur de gar ance, or flowers of madder, and garancine. Their preparation is briefly as follows : —
Fleur de gar ance is made by soaking ground madder in water, with the addition of a small quantity of sulphuric acid ; it is then drained in a filter and well washed. The washings contain a considerable amount of glucose, besides other products, and when fermented yield alcohol, which is suitable for a variety of purposes, but is not fit for drinking unless purified. The washed madder is then pressed and dried, and constitutes fleur de gar ance. Oa account of the products which have been removed this substance is considerably richer in colouring matter than madder.
Garancine is prepared by first washing ground madder much in the same way as for the preparation of fleur de garance, and after being pressed it is mixed with concen¬ trated sulphuric acid, in quantity equal to about half the weight of the madder originally taken. After being thoroughly incorporated with this it is heated with steam for three or four hours, placed on filters, and thoroughly washed, pressed and dried. Tinctorially it is about three and a half times as strong as madder.
Madder will not dye unprepared fabrics ; they require to be what is called mordanted. In this case the mordants consist of metallic oxides, those of aluminum and iron being the chief ones. With alumina mordants it produces shades of red and pink, with iron mordants shades of black and purple. These mordants may likewise be mixed, and then produce various kinds of chocolate colour. The value of madder and its preparations is determined by taking weighed quantities and dyeing pieces of mordanted cloth with them, the size of the cloth being always the same ; after dyeing the patterns are cleared by treatment with soap, and are then dried ; and, of course, according to the depth of the colour, so is the value. Standard specimens are used at the same time for the sake of comparison.
In mordanting cotton goods, the mordants, which are chiefly the acetates of iron and aluminum, are thickened and printed on, either with a machine or blocks. They are “aged,” as it is called. This used to be performed by hanging the goods in a moist atmosphere for some days, but now they are passed through properly constructed rooms, kept at the requisite temperature and degree of moisture by steam, and then laid in bundles for a time.
The next process is called “dunging.” Its object is to remove the thickening which has been used with the mor¬ dants, and also to thoroughly neutralize them, at the same time removing any that has not combined with the fibre. This is accomplished by passing the goods through warm water containing cow dung, but now more commonly con¬ taining certain salts, as phosphates, arseniates, etc. ; these are called dung substitutes. When this operation has been
finished the goods are washed, and are then ready for dyeing.
Dyeing with madder is an operation requiring consider¬ able care, especially as the temperature of the dye-bath must be raised only very slowly, otherwise a loss of colour¬ ing matter occurs. This makes the operation take some con¬ siderable time, often two hours. If garancin is used the dyeing can be conducted more quickly. In this operation the ground madder, or the garancin, is mixed with the water in the dye-bath. A little chalk is also sometimes added. As^the colouring matter of the dye-stuff gradually dissolves in the water, the mordants on the goods take it up. It is important in this process that the mordants should be thoroughly saturated with colouring matter, otherwise they do not resist the after-clearing process so well. When dyed the goods are washed with water and then cleared, as most of the colours are very impure, especially the reds, which have a rusty look. The methods of clearing vary according to the class of goods, madder pinks receiving the greatest amount of treatment and care. In this process soap is largely used, but it will not be necessary to enter into further details, as it would occupy too much time, and I only wish to convey to you a general impression of the application of madder to calico printing.
Before leaving this subject I must refer to another most important application of madder, namely, Turkey red dyeing. This mode of dyeing was introduced into Europe from the East, and is undoubtedly of Indian origin ; from India it came to the Levant, and was afterwards intro¬ duced into France about 1747. The first Turkey red works in the United Kingdom were established about the end of the last century. Turkey red is remarkable for its brilliancy of colour and permanence, and also for the peculiar nature of the processes employed in its produc¬ tion.
For dyeing Turkey red the cotton is first prepared by treatment with olive oil, which is afterwards oxidized by exposure to the air. The oil is usually employed in the form of an emulsion, made by agitating the oil with a solution of carbonate of soda or potash. The goods are passed through this and then exposed to the air, after which they are treated several times in the same manner. When sufficiently charged with oxidized olive oil they are mordanted with an alumina salt, galls, shumach, or other tannin matter. Cotton thus prepared for dyeing is of a buff or yellowish shade.
In the next operation the dye-bath is charged with madder or garancin, a little shumach, and a quantity of blood. The prepared goods are entered into this bath, and heat gradually applied, until it reaches the boiling point, at which temperature it is kept until the dyeing is complete. The goods are then washed in water, and present a dark, heavy, dull red colour. They are next subjected to the clearing processes, which are two in number. These are performed in large copper boilers, with moveable covers, as the clearing has to be done under pressure. The dyed goods are placed in these, with a mixture of common soda crystals and soap, and boiled under pressure for about six hours. They are then removed, washed in hot water, and again placed in boilers, with a solution of soap, to which chloride of tin (tin crystals) has been added. They are boiled in this, under pressure, for about four hours, and then removed, washed and finished. The first clearing considerably improves the colour, but the last one gives that remarkable brilliancy peculiar to good Turkey red. After all this treatment with soap, we can understand that Turkey red is a very fast colour.
No satisfactory process for printing Turkey red has yet been found. Some time since I made a few experiments on the subject. The cloth prepared ready for dyeing was used, and then printed with the colouring matter ; it was then steamed, washed and cleared as above. The colours were very good indeed, but the parts which should be white were still of the yellowish colour of the prepared cloth.
When a Turkey red is wanted in a pattern the cloth is
18
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[Ju1)’ S, 187P.
first dyed all over with this colour. If white is required in the pattern, those parts are printed with thickened tar¬ taric acid ; if yellow, with tartaric acid and a lead salt ; if blue, with tartaric acid and Prussian blue. On passing cloth printed in this manner into a solution of chloride of lime, the parts printed with acid, as they come in contact with this solution, cause chlorine to be evolved and the Turkey red destroyed, thus white is produced. If blue has been printed on with the acid, the red being discharged, blue remains. If a lead salt has been printed on, white is obtained ; but when passed through a solution of bichromate of potash, yellow chromate of lead is formed. Of course green can be obtained by combining the last two processes. Black is printed on direct. Most beauti¬ ful results are obtained in this manner.
Madder is also employed for woollen goods. It is generally used in combination with other dye-stuffs for the purpose of producing brown, buff, or chocolate colours. But I must pass on, the application of madder being a subject on which books have been written, my remarks are therefore necessarily of only a very general character, though I hope sufficient to give some idea of the pro¬ cesses.
Having seen the importance of madder as a dye-stuff and the methods of applying it to fabrics, it will next be desirable to consider the colouring matters it contains, which render it so valuable.
Scarcely anything was know of these until 1827. At this date, two chemists, Colin and Robiquet, obtained the principal colouring matter in a state of tolerable purity. They extracted ground madder with hot water, and, after treating this extract in various ways, obtained a product which, when heated carefully in a glass tube, gave off a yellowish vapour, condensing into brilliant bright red needles. They named this substance Alizarin, from the Levant name of madder, Alizari.
But the method they adopted for its preparation, viz.r sublimation, rendered it a matter of uncertainty whethe alizarin pre-existed in madder pr was a product of decom' position of some other body. Dr. Schunck, however’ afterwards succeeded in obtaining it without having recourse to sublimation. If further proof were needed it was found in the fact that thist colouring matter was capable of dyeing mordanted cloth just in the same way as madder. It exists in madder in only very small quantities, not more than to the extent of one per cent.
Alizarin is nearly insoluble in cold water, and 1000 parts of boiling water dissolve only about three parts of the colouring matter. It is more soluble in alcohol, and from high boiling naphtha it may be crystallized in red needles. When crystallized from alcohol it is obtained in orange -coloured needles.
One of the characteristic properties of alizarin is the beautiful blue violet solution it produces on being dissolved in caustic alkalies. This solution, when viewed by the spectroscope, shows two strong absorption bands, one near to C, and the other at D, and a very faint one near to E. Alizarin also dissolves in ammonia with a purple colour. It forms a red lake with alumina, and a black one with oxide of iron.
Curiously, alizarin is not found in the growing madder root. This is easily seen by expressing some of its juice and treating it with caustic potash. In this way a red- coloured solution is produced, and not a violet one, as would be the case if alizarin were present. This colora¬ tion is due to the presence of a substance called rubianic acid. This body is a glucoside of alizarin, and when decomposed yields ali sarin and glucose. This can be easily effected by boiling it with hydrochloric acid, when alizarin separates as a yellow precipitate. Rubianic acid does not possess dyeing properties.
The decomposition of this glucoside in the madder root occurs partly during the process of drying, but not entirely until it is gently heated with water in the dye-bath. This decomposition is caused by a peculiar ferment called
Erythrozyme, a product which is destroyed if heated with water to 100° C. This is one reason why the madder dyers have to gently raise the temperature of their dye-bath so that this glucoside may entirely decompose, and all the alizarin be liberated and rendered useful. The importance of this may be easily seen by taking two equal parts of growing madder root, and, after bruising them in a mor¬ tar, to throw one into boiling water and the other into cold water. On placing a piece of mordanted cloth in each, keeping the one with boiling water still boiling, and gradually raising the temperature of the other, it will be found that the one in boiling water will have scarcely coloured the mordants, whilst the one in cold water and gently warmed up will have dyed them tho¬ roughly.
There is only one other colouring matter in madder that I need refer to, and that is purpurin. This substance was discovered by Colin and Robiquet, and called by them Mature colorante rose. It was afterwards obtained in a somewhat purer state by Debus, and by Wolff and Strecker. This substance is separated from madder by boiling it with a solution of alum; munjeet, however, is its best source. It is precipitated from the alum solution with hydrochloric acid and then further purified. When pure purpurin crystallizes in red or orange-red needles, it differs from alizarin in the way it behaves with a'kalies; solutions of these yielding with it beautiful cherry-red colours. It also dissolves in alumina salts with formation of pink solutions, which are fluorescent. The spectrum is also very different from that 6f alizarin.
It dyes mordanted cloth, forming with alumina mor¬ dants a yellowish scarlet. The colours it produces with iron mordants, however, are not at all good. The pur¬ purin colours do not resist soaping well, so that madder prints, in the process of clearing, lose all the purpurin taken on in the dye-bath. It is retained, however, to some extent in the cheaper class, such as garancine styles. From this it will be seen that it is a substance of but little value. It exists in the growing madder-root as a glucoside.
A great deal of controversy has taken place respecting the chemical formula of alizarin. Dr. Schunck proposed CI4H504, which, according to the present notation, would be C7H502, whilst Strecker believed it to be C10H6O3, and related to chloroxynaphthalic acid, a derivative of naphthalene, so that it has long been supposed that it was possible to obtain alizarin from a coal-tar product, though not from the right one. Still there was a good deal of reason to believe that it was a naphthalene deri¬ vative, from the fact that, when oxidized it yields the same acid as naphthalene, namely, phthalic acid. Strecker’s formula was the one generally believed in. It is right to mention that Strecker changed his views of this subject afterwards.
The chloroxynaphthalic acid above referred to was sup¬ posed to be a chlorine derivative of alizarin, the two bodies being thus related : —
Ci„h„o3 c10h5ci o3
Alizarin. Chlorinated Alizarin.
And many attempts were made to remove this chlorine and replace it by hydrogen, so as to form alizarin ; and eventually Martius and Greiss obtained the substance, C10H6O3, when investigating some amido derivatives of naphtbal, but it was not alizarin. They assumed it, how¬ ever, to be an isomer of that body.
Some time after the experiments of Martius and Greiss, Graebe commenced some researches on quinone (a body related to benzene). At that time no analogous sub¬ stance to quinone, related to any other hydrocarbon than benzene, was recognized. However, he was induced to consider chloroxynaphthalic acid as a derivative of a naph¬ thalene quinone, which has since been obtained, and also discovered a chlorinated derivative of a quinone of toluene.
{To be continued.)
July 5, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
19
JOHN THOMPSON.
On Friday, June 20, John Thompson, one of the Founders of the Pharmaceutical Society, and one of its earliest local secretaries, died in the seventy-seventh year of his age.
John Thompson was born at Laversdale, in Cumber¬ land, on January 23, 1803. He was apprenticed to a chemist in Hull — Mr. Foster, of Lowgate — and subse¬ quently engaged as assistant to Mr. Fouracre, of Gloucester. He returned to Hxill to the late Mr. Edward Smeeton, with whom, in the capacity of assist¬ ant, he removed to Leeds when that gentleman opened his establishment there. By Mr. Smeeton he was very highly esteemed, and at his suggestion, and by his help, he commenced business in Thirsk, in the year 1828, where he greatly prospered. The business then established is now carried on by one of his sons, four of whom are connected with the Pharmaceutical Society. He was inferred at Thirsk on Tuesday, the 24th of June, amid signs of universal respect.
Notice has also been received of the death of the fol¬ lowing : —
On the 2nd of May, 1879, Mr. Frederick Whiteman, Chemist and Druggist, Vernon Street, Ipswich. Aged 38 years.
On the 2nd of June, 1879, Mr. Richard John Hinsley, Chemist and Druggist, Manchester Road, Bradford. Aged 42 years.
On the 6th of June, 1879, Mr. Benjamin Alfred Eyre, Pharmaceutical Chemist, Tacket Street, Ipswich. Aged 67 years. Mr. Eyre had been a Member ot the Pharma¬ ceutical Society since 1842.
On the loth of June, 1879, Mr. James Sellick Hicks, Pharmaceutical Chemist, Fore Street, Looe. Aged 40 years. Mr. Hicks had been a Member of the Pharma¬ ceutical Society since 1864.
Dispijnsiiiijg Hftmottmutit.
In order to assist as much as possible our younger brethren, for whose salce partly this column was established, considerable latitude is alloived, according to promise, in the propounding of supposed difficxdties. But the right will be exercised of excluding too trivial questions, or re¬ petitions of those that have been previously discussed in principle. And we would suggest that those ivho meet U'ith difficxdties should before sending them search previous numbers of the Journal to see if they can obtain the re¬ quired information.
Replies .
[315] . Considering the solubility of ammon. chloride in spirit (1 in 50) it would be impossible to obtain a perfect solution from this recipe. The salt should be used in powder, and the insoluble portion shaken up before the “volatile liniment” be applied.
Hastings. D. H.
[316] . A very presentable “jelly” might be made of this, only it should be sent out for convenience in a galli¬ pot with a china or glass spoon. If this did not meet with the intention of the prescriber, it would teach him a lesson on “Incompatibles” and enable him in future to order a mixture that would pour out of a bottle.
Hastings. D. H.
[319]. I should also be glad, of a little information about this prescription.
Some time ago the following recipe was brought to be dispensed : —
R Litharge . ^x.
01. Olivae . gv.
01. Lavand . ill 40.
Ft. ung.
My directions were more vague than A. Y.’s; but as boiling with water was the only way of forming an ointment, except by using wax, the litharge and oil were boiled with water until combination had taken place. The resulting product, though stiff, might still be called an ointment. Shortly after our customer complained of its being darker and harder than what he had got in London. He obtained some more from the same source, which was nearly but not quite white, soft, contained moisture, and had a cooling effect on the skin.
The spirit of emulation being aroused the greater portion of Whit Monday and part of another day were devoted to preparing a fresh lot.
The litharge was found to be contaminated with per¬ oxide, so some fresh, light-yellow protoxide was made by heating carbonate of lead in an iron vessel, from which a much lighter coloured ointment was produced; but still the consistence was too stiff, the colour not quite white enough, and the ointment did not contain sufficient moisture.
The best result was obtained with
Litharge . 3v.
Ol. Amygd . 5iij.
Aq . 3iss.
the water being replaced as it evaporated.
I have not had an opportunity of learning whether this retained its appearance and consistence.
The prescription was from the pen of a well-known skin doctor. W.
[321]. This presents a mixture that undergoes chemical decomposition after standing a few hours.
The acid carbonate of soda acting upon the liq. bismuthi displaces ammonia and inevitably precipitates carbonate of bismuth. (This may be proved by filtering the mix¬ ture, and washing until it ceases to make lime water turbid. Nitric acid added dissolves the precipitate with effer¬ vescence, giving a solution blackened by AmHS.)
Unless the liq. bismuthi had been omitted it would be impossible not to have a deposit.
Hastings. D. H.
[321]. The precipitate was caused by the loss of ammonia. All the bright samples of liq. bismuthi have a slight odour of ammonia. If that was hardly per¬ ceptible I should doubt the stability of the compound, particularly if the weather was warm and the customer were to leave the cork out. In such cases I should be disposed to add a few di-ops of liq. ammon. This addition to the stock bottle, or a mixture, will redissolve the precqjitate. The ammonia should be added in small quantities, and the bottle shaken and allowed to stand after each addition. I should tell the customer the cause of the change, and show how the supplying what has been lost restores the mixture. It should be remembei'ed the addition of ammonia only supplies what has escaped from the bottle, and is quite different to adulterating or sophisticating.
H. G. C.
Queries.
[322]. Here is a puzzle to solve ; how to make a usable preparation of these ingredients ? I had it as an orthodox physician’s prescription to prepare.
|
R Tr. Lyttse . |
• • • 3j- |
|
Acid. Sulph. Dil . |
. • • 3ij. |
|
Tr. Lavand. Co . |
• • • 3«j |
|
Vaseline or Prepared Lard . |
. • ad gij. |
|
M. “for external use.” |
W. B.
20
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 5, 1879.
[-323]. How should the following be dispensed ? —
Sod* Siccatas ......... gtt. 2.
Ex. Nucis V . gr.
Ex. Gentianae . q.s.
Ut fiat pilula. Mitte 24.
I enclose a tracing of the prescription from which it ■will be seen that the gtt. in the first line is very different from the gr. in the second. The prescription is from a well-known and experienced M.D., who could not be consulted at the time. W. S.
[324]. Can any readers of the Pharmaceutical Journal throw light on the following? —
R. Morphise (the alkaloid) . . . . gr. 8.
Chloroformi . ill 60.
Lin. Belladonnae . ad fl. dr. 4.
Ft. linimentum.
As dispensed by me the greater portion of the morphia, as I expected, remained undissolved, and a “shake the bottle ” label was attached. The patient, however, in¬ forms me that he has had it before perfectly bright and clear, cf a brownish tint (he compared it 4in colour to tinct. camph. comp.), and about twice as much in bulk as I had sent. I fail to see how this could be done without departing from the formula.
Gulielmus.
[325]. I should be glad to have the opinion of the readers of the Pharmaceutical Journal as to the proper .salt of bismuth to use in dispensing the following : —
R Bismuthi .
Adipis . 3vj.
Creosoti . H v.
M. ft. ung.
I used the subnitrate as being that probably intended, although I must admit that the prescription might as reasonably have been dispensed with either carbonate or •oxide. Gulielmus.
Jtotys and faeries.
[610]. FURNITURE CREAM.— In reply to A. P. S. the following is an excellent recipe for furniture paste : —
Bees’ Wax . 1| pounds.
Spirit of Turpentine .... 4 pints.
Dissolve by means of a water-bath in a closed vessel, then add common soap, % pound, previously dissolved in 4 pints of water, and stir well together until nearly cold.
A. W. Postans.
[610]. FURNITURE CREAM.— I would recommend the following receipt for furniture cream : —
R Yellow Wax . 5v.
Turps . . . Oj.
Castille Soap . §iss.
Cut the bees’ wax in small pieces, and dissolve in the turpentine by a gentle heat; when nearly cool add the soap (first powdered, rubbed up with §ij of water), gradu¬ ally stirring continually until it becomes thick.
Ferri Cit.
[610]. FURNITURE CREAM.— I think A. P. S. •will find the following to suit his purpose : —
R Cerse Flav . 2^ ozs.
Cerse Alb . 1 oz.
Sapo. Cast . 1 dram.
01. Terebinth.
Aq. Bull . ana 10 ozs.
Potass. Garb . 1 dram.
Melt the wax and turpentine together, dissolve the soap and potass, carb. in the water and mix while warm, stirring till cold.
Cambridge. G. J. Bull.
[611]. MOORE’S OINTMENT.— I beg to ask through the medium of your Journal, can any of the readers kindly give me a recipe for Moore’s or Old Moore’s Ointment, much used in Golden Square, West district?
Unguentum.
dDnftjssfuwIpq.
Lin. Potassii Iodid. o. Sapone, B.P.
Sir, — Apropos of a new edition of the British Pharma¬ copoeia may I be allowed to suggest that the directions for making the above liniment be made more definite, and also be supplemented by a note as to the appearance it is in¬ tended to have when finished.
Ought it to be a solid or a liquid ?
Is it meant to be dispensed in a pot or in a bottle ?
A s it is possible for such questions as these to be asked, I think none can deny that there are grounds for the above suggestion.
The directions say, “mix the two solutions together.” Is it intended to add the iodide of potassium solution to the soap solution or vice versa, for the first process results in a solid substance, whilst by adding the soap solution to the iodide of potassium solution a liquid is produced.
There are other difficulties, however, for I have made several experiments, but have had no two results alike, although the same kind of material and the same quantities were used in each case.
There seems to be a difficulty about the soap most ad¬ vantageous for the purpose ; but the experience above recorded would suggest that hard soap is evidently not an “ advantageous soap.”
I should feel greatly obliged if those who had the framing of the last British Pharmacopoeia will come forward and state what this liniment should be like, or rather what they intended it to be like, for, as far as I know the profes¬ sion, medical men prefer it in liquid form.
However, when lin. potassii iodid. c. sapone, B.P., is pre¬ scribed it ought to be dispensed. Here then comes the query. Is it a liquid or a solid or is it both (for it will readily sepa¬ rate into two parts representing each of those conditions), or ought a substance with a jelly-like appearance to be dis¬ pensed for it ?
An answer that will remove any cause for doubt will be heartily welcomed by W. H. de B.
“ Qucero.” — (1) Trapogon porrifolius, in flower. (2) Fungus ( Ustilago receptaculorum ) destroying flowers of goat’s beard. (See Cooke, ‘Microscopic Fungi,’ pi. v., fig. 92-94.
Mr. J. R. Thompson is thanked for his communication.
“Nux.” — (1) Eriophorumpolystachyon. (2) Rhinanthus Crista-Galli. (3) St ellaria graminea. (4) Crepis setosa. (5) Sedum acre.
G. R. Y. — Several formulae for syr. ferri lactophosphatis have already been given in the present series of this Journal. Among others, see that sanctioned by the Paris Society, vol. vii., p. 1041.
E. K. C. — We shall be glad to hear the result of the further experiments you propose to make.
W. C. 8. (Luton). — The information will be found in the “ Students’ Numbers ” of the medical journals which are issued previous to the opening of the medical schools.
C. J. Bennett. — We know of no better work for the pur- pose than the one mentioned.
“ Gulielmus.” — (1). Trifolium minus. (2). Car ex, vul- pinus. (3 ). Arrenatherum elatior. (4b Trifolium repens. (5). Lychnis Flo s-Cuculi. (6). Cardamine pratensis.
Cyprus. — (1). Cynoglossum officinale. (2). Anthyllis Vulneraria. (3). Honckenya peploides.
“ OrchisP — (1). Orchis maculata. (2). Gymnadenia Conopsea. (3). Hahenaria bifolia.
R. Roberts. — (1). Orchis maculata. (8). Send specimen with leaves. (6). Ceteracli ojficinarum. Nos. 2, 4 and 5 are correctly named.
G. Stevens. — Recipes for “Nervine Balsam” will be found in the Journal for March 30, 1878, vol. viii., pp. 773 and 782. _ _ _
Communications, Letters, etc., have been received from Messrs. Maleham, Nemo, Strachan, J. B. P., G. R.yY., W. C. S., Hirudo, Quaero.
July 12, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
21
SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE -WHAT IT WAS, IS, AND OUGHT TO BE.
BY W. SMEETON.
Under the above comprehensive title appeared a paper, written by Mr. Rimmington, of Bradford, in the November number of the Journal for 1877. It provoked a discussion and the facts that ap¬ peared to come out were that the ethereal liquid which is produced when alcohol and nitric acid are distilled together by the B.P. process is a compound of alcohol, nitrite of ethyl, aldehyde, and perhaps ■other unknown substances, and that the B.P. process would always yield an article containing the same proportion of the same ingredients. But at the outset, Mr. Rimmington condemned the B.P. process as being unnecessarily complex, and one that probably did not meet with universal adoption. Of ■course this might be said of any process, and the quantity to be operated upon will also be a modify¬ ing agent. Mr. Rimmington’s remarks respecting the directions to allow the still to cool before adding more acid were quite to the point; but if, on the other hand, the whole of the acid is added to start . with the action is very violent, and if the quantities dealt with are large, it is almost sure to lead to loss of ether. If the acid is added later on without waiting for the cooling, red fumes are apt to come over. In this dilemma we are left, and we should have been under obligation had Mr. Rimmington pointed out a more excellent way. Mr. Umney lias also stated that nitre made by the B.P. process was unfavourably received, and I suppose most manu¬ facturers must occasionally have lound the result unsatisfactory.
J ust before the British Pharmacopoeia came out, Professor Redwood read a very exhaustive article on spirit of nitre, explaining the B. P. process, and briefly reviewing other processes. The Edinburgh and Dublin forms of making hy- ponitrous ether first, were dismissed as not being applicable for large quantities and expensive. There may be something in this, for whatever Professor Redwood states is so well considered that it may always be taken as correct. Still, after trying several processes, I have come to the conclusion that with the quantities with which I deal, none is so satisfactory as the Edinburgh plan. It is as easy and takes less time, but what is of much more moment, it makes a nitre that is very pleasant and uniform in character. I am not sure it is the best plan, but it is the best I know, and I do not find it very difficult to manipulate.
I take twelve pints of alcohol and add to it care¬ fully three pints of nitric acid either at once or in successive portions. This is placed in a still having a capacity of eight gallons, connected with a stone worm and Woulfe’s bottles to catch what escapes the first condenser and receiver. Action will sometimes commence without artificial heat; if it does not I turn on steam till it does, but before the temperature reaches 140°, distillation commences, rapidly at first, and requires very careful condensa¬ tion. The distillate is in appearance and quantity about the same as that obtained by the B.P. process, but I think it is more ethereal and certainly more acid. It is now neutralized with milk of lime and solution of chloride of calcium added. The nearly pure ether separates, floats on the surface, the heavy liquid below contains the alcohol of the dis- Third Series, No. 472.
tillate, and certainly most if not all the aldehyde and possibly other products. With the hope of utilizing the washings and recovering alcohol or ether, I have redistilled them with lime and filtered through charcoal, but it is bad smelling, ultimately goes yellow, and is certainly best out of good spt. nitre, though not worse than much that is sold. The main difficulty of this process is the volatile charac¬ ter of the ether, rendering the separation by a syphon a somewhat risky process, and giving, if inhaled, a most cadaverous hue to the operator. Great care has also to be taken wb^n the water and lime are added to keep all very Cuid, as the mixture with the spirituous liquid generates heat enough to make the ether boil. With these precautions the process is not more than ordinarily difficult. One ounce of the ether with a pint of sptirit makes nitre of 5 per cent, strength ; two ounces 10 per cent, or B.P. strength, as Mr. Rimmington has pointed out. The 5 per cent, is, I think, strong enough for medicinal purposes, and would generally be pre¬ ferred.
In conclusion, I beg to say that whether this is the spt. nitre that is to be, or not, it has much to recommend it. It has a beautiful sweet flavour, something like chloroform, and I believe is free from aldehyde and other noxious products.
NOTES ON SOME JAPANESE DRUGS.
BY E. M. HOLMES, F.L.S. ,
Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society.
ROOTS.
( Continued from 'page 5.)
Dee-oh (53) : — Rehmannia lutea, Max.
Syn. Ti-hwang, Porter Smith, p. 184; Sas-hime, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. xi. fig. 62 ; Dziwo, Fr. et Sav. vol. i. p. 328; Sao hime, Goma tome sao, Phonzou Zoufou, vol. xvii. fol. 23.
This root occurs in pieces one or two inches long and about one-quarter to one-third of an inch in diameter, soft and flexible, and very much wrinkled externally, internally soft and moist, of a deep brownish-black colour, with a darker line marking the juncture of the bark and meditullium. Taste earthy and slightly sweet. Several species of this Gesneraceous genus are largely used in China as alteratives and tonics, and are supposed to possess cooling and purifying properties.
The Japanese character for this drug is identical with that translated Ti-hwang, under Rehmannia Chinensis , in Dr. Porter Smith’s ‘ Chinese Materia Medica,’ “dee ” or “ ti” being the name of the plant and “ oli,” like the Chinese “ hwang,” meaning yellow, in allusion to the yellow colour of the flowers.
The plant is cultivated in Japanese gardens and flowers in May, and was in the first place probably brought from China.
Gah-ditz (23) : — Curcuma Zerumbet, Roxb.
This root corresponds exactly in shape and taste and odour with specimens of zedoary or zerumbet root in the museum of this Society ; most of the pieces are, however, of a rather more horny con¬ sistence than the zedoary root seen in commerce. Mixed with this rhizome are a few specimens of cassumunar root ( Curcuma Zedoaria, Roxb.), which are easily distinguishable by their yellow colour when cut or scraped.
22
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 12
Gah-ditz comprises both the long and short zedoary’ or in other words, both the central and lateral rhi¬ zomes.
This plant is probably not wild in Japan, as it is not mentioned either in the ‘So mokou Zoussetz ’ or in ‘Franchet and Savatier’s Flora’; it is probably cultivated in Japan like several other medicinal plants belonging to the Scitaminese.
Hak-tau-au (48) : — Anemone cernua, Th.
Syn. Neko bana, Fr. et Sav. vol. i. p. 4 ; Hokina g’za, Phonzou Zoufou, vol. vi. fol. 23 ; Okina gusa, Shaguma saiko, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. x. fig. 34; Ollina gusa, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 238 ; Kawara saiko, Sieb. et Zucc. FI. Jap. p. 14.
This is an unbranclied, cylindrical, hard and brittle root, three to five inches long, or more, about the size of a goose quill, coarsely furrowed longitu¬ dinally, and crowned with the silky bases of the leaves. The transverse section ds brown and horny, and shows a small central cavity lined with white fibres ; this cavity appears to run through nearly the whole length of the root. The taste is sweet and slightly acrid. It probably possesses similar pro¬ perties to the common Anemone Pulsatilla, to which plant it is nearly allied.
The Japanese name literally translated means white-headed old man, and is probably given in allusion to the white silky appearance of the tufts of young leaves. The Chinese name Hak-too-woo, is very similar in pronunciation.
The plant, like Anemone Pulsatilla, grows in J apan on dry hilly places at an altitude of 500 to 2000 feet, and flowers in March or April.
It is said to be used as a bitter medicine in China and Japan.
Han-Ge (47) : — Pinellia tuberifera, Ten.
Syn. Karasubishaku, So mokou Zouss. vol. xix. fig. 1 ; Phonzou Zoufou, vol. xvii. p. 23; Sang- pwan-hea, Hanbury ‘ Science Papers,’ p. 262, with fig. of root ; Midsummer Root, Pwan- hia, Porter Smith, ‘ Chinese Materia Medica,’ p. 149. Too hange, Fr. et Sav. vol. ii. pi. 1, p. 3; Fanke so, Kras no Fisiaku, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 233.
This drug consists of small white starchy corms, varying in size from a pea to that of a small marble. They are usually slightly flattened, and have a small depression on one side surrounded by a num¬ ber of little pits, which are apparently the scars of the radical fibres. They appear to have but little taste, but a powerful pungency is perceptible after the drug is chewed, as in many other plants of the arum family.
According to Dr. Porter Smith the powdered drug has an action like colchicum and has been used for a long time in the Hankow Mission Hospital as a substitute for the sulphate of potash in Dover’s powders. Although containing a quantity of starch this drug is never attacked by insects.
The plant is found in uncultivated places and in fallow fields, flowering in May and June. It pro¬ bably derives its name from the time of flowering, “ lian” meaning middle and “ge ” summer.
Kai (56) : — Dioscorea quinqueloba, Thunb.
Syn. Ktkuba-dokoro, So mokou Zouss. vol. xx. fig. 54; Kai, Tokoro, Koempf. Amoen. p. 827.
- ... , - - 1 ~ — i.
Kassuda Fanna dakka, Karasuno Sent,, Thunb. FI. Jap. p. 150.
This is a sliced tuber, the slices being one inch or more broad, about half an inch thick, or rather less, and two or three inches long. The cortical portion consists of a wrinkled pale brown skin, marked here and there with the scars of rootlets. Internally it is yellowish-white and shows a few scattered vascular bundles. The substance is moderately hard and tough. The taste is slightly but not persistently bitter. It has very little odour.
Of its medicinal properties I have no knowledge. The root is edible, according to Koempfer, who describes it as similar in appearance to ginger. Thunberg states that the name “■fanna dakka means nose higher, and is given because children put the winged capsules on their noses to make their nose& look larger, while “karasuno seni” means crow-berry.
The plant has much the habit of the black bryony of this country, but the leaves are larger and have five shallow lobes. It flowers from June to Sep¬ tember.
Kas-hi-yu (43).
This is a large tuberous root, varying in size from two to four inches long and one to two inches in diameter. Externally it is of a blackish-brown colour, with one or two deep furrows, or in some pieces it exhibits a slightly wrinkled surface, while in others it presents transverse scar3 or ridges which by friction have become pale. Internally the root presents a nut-brown colour and a shining resinous fracture ; the structure appears uniform. The root is extremely hard, requiring a blow from a hammer to fracture it. The taste is slightly astringent and the odour earthy.
I have not been able to identify it.
Kesso : — Patrinia scabiosafolia, Link. (Valerianacese.
Syn. Omina-meshi, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. ii. p. 21 ; Womina mesi, Jama njan kusoo, Uro amisi, Oro ami, Fr. et Sav. vol. i.
p. 216.
This root was not presented with the others, but was offered in the London market under the name of “kesso” and was imported from Japan ; as a product of that country it seems to demand notice here.. The root resembles that of Valeriana officinalis in general appearance and odour, but differs in the central portion to which the rootlets are attached, being very small and short, rarely exceeding one- third of an inch in diameter; the rootlets form a compact tuft from two to three inches long, are of a dark brown colour, and have a slightly scaly surface, by which and by the colour they are easily distinguished 1 10m valerian root. The odour of the root is even more powerful than that of Valeriana officinalis. The taste is bitter and aromatic. It grows in stony mountainous places and blossoms in July.
Ki-KYo (33) : — Platycodon grandijlorum, A.DC. (Campanulacece), So mokou Zoussetz, vol. iii. fig. 3; Phonzou Zoufou, vol. iv. p. 14, 15. Syn. Campanula glauca, Tliunb.. FI. Jap. p. 88 ; Kekko, Kir jo, Kirakoo, Koempf. Amoen. p„ 822.
This root is white, about three or four inches long, strongly but sparingly furrowed longitudinally, taper-
July 12, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
23
ing from just below the part where the stem arises, -simple, or once forked, and giving off from the shoulder or thickened portion near the top of the root one or two short often horizontally-spreading lateral branches. Internally it is tough, white, and slightly spongy, with a yellowish-white horny ring surrounding the meditullium. The taste is at first sweet and mucilaginous, but afterwards faintly bitter. The juice is milky in the fresh root, according to Koempfer.
These specimens do not in any way correspond with those described under the name of Platycodon grandiflorum by Dr. Porter Smith (p. 173). The Chinese character there translated kih-kang is, however, identical with the Japanese character ldkyo. The Japanese root was, however, recognized at sight by Mr. Takemura, who told me the plant yielding it had a large blue flower, and on showing him the figure of the plant in the So mokou Zoussetz, he at once identified it as the one yielding the root. Dr. Porter Smith’s specimen in the museum of the Phar¬ maceutical Society is therefore probably incorrect.
According to Koempfer, this root is considered only second in medicinal value to the celebrated ..ginseng, which is not surprising, since it has a -stronger resemblance to the outline of a human body than even that famous root.
Kikyo grows commonly on the borders of culti¬ vated fields, and flowers in July and August.
Kin-kee (55) : — Mcdva sylvestris, L., Fr. and Sav. vol. i. p. 62.
Syn. Zeni-aoi, So mokou Zoussetz, vol. xii. fig. 54.
This root resembles in every respect that obtain¬ able in England, except that it is whiter and evi¬ dently carefully washed and rubbed before drying.
It is probably cultivated in J apan, and not really wild, according to Franchet and Savatier.
Kuh-shing (14).
This drug is very similar in appearance to decor¬ ticated marshmallow root, but of a more yellowish tint. It occurs in angular pieces four or six inches long and one- third to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and is very fibrous; the meditullium occupies the greater portion of the root and is marked where it joins the cortical portion by a ring of faint brown radiating dotted lines. The dotted appearance under a lens is seen to be due to the presence of porous vessels. The taste is intensely bitter. Examined by Mons. A. Petit, of Paris, it was found to contain a new alkaloid, to which its bitterness is due.
Thunberg refers “ krism,’’ a name similar in sound but different in meaning, to Sophora lieptaphylla , L., but the root of that plant does not appear to be bitter.. The Japanese character for “shing” means bitter.
I have not yet been able to identify this drug.
Oh-ren (58) : — Coptis anemonoefolia , Sieb. et Zucc.
(Ranunculacese) ; So mokou Zouss. vol. x. fig. 36.
Syn. Kakouma G’za, Fr. et Sav. vol. i. p. 10;
Phonzou Zoufou, vol. vii. p. 2.
This drug closely resembles in appearance that of <Coptis Teeta , Wall., but is more slender and more •curved, and has less of the smooth stem which is •often attached to the latter. The rhizomes are about
one or one and a half inches long and two lines thick, occasionally branched, and always bristly with short, slender, wiry rootlets. Externally it is of a dark brown colour and internally of a golden yellow. The taste is bitter.
The Japanese character (“oh-ren,” meaning yellow ren) is exactly the same as the Chinese one for hwang-lien, which is the rhizome of Coptis Teeta, Wall., and not a Justicia, as stated by Dr. Porter Smith in his ‘Chinese Materia Medica,’ p. 126, and whose specimens in the museum of the Society are certainly the rhizome of Coptis Teeta.
The Japanese drug, like Coptis Teeta , probably contains a quantity of berberine. It is not a little singular that Coptis Teeta, Berberis Lycium, Hydrastis Canadensis ancl Coscinium fenestratum, which all contain berberine, have all been found useful in inflammation of the eyes.
Two other species of Coptis are figured in So mokou Zoussetz, viz., C. trifolia, Salisb. (fig. 38) and C. quinquefolia, Miq. (fig. 37), both of which are much smaller species, and other species are de¬ scribed by Franchet and Savatier, but all of these have a more slender rhizome.
(To be continued.)
INSECT POWDER*
BY WILLIAM SAUNDERS.
The insect powders of commerce are the powdered flowers of different species of Pyrethrum. Those of P)J rethrum ccirneum and roseum were introduced some thirty years ago under the name of Persian insect powder, and subsequently those of Pyrethrum cinerar ice- folium, a native of Dalmatia, Austria, as Dalmatian insect powder. Both the Persian and Dalmatian powders are good insecticides, but the latter is much the more energetic in its action and hence commands a higher price ; indeed, it is so much preferred that it is gradually driving the so-called Persian powder out of the market. The fact of the flowers of P. roseum being less active than those of P. cinerar icefolium, has been accounted for on the ground that the single flowers are much more powerful than the double ones, and that the double flowers occur in P. roseum in much larger propor¬ tion than in the other species. The flowers, either whole or powdered, preserve their activity for a long period. A recent European experimenter states that he could not perceive any particular loss of activity in samples which had been kept for six years. The fresh (undried) flowers act very slowly as compared with the same dried and powdered, and the plant itself powdered is quits inactive. It is singular that while there are many other composite plants closely related to the genus Pyrethrum , as yet this peculiar property has been found only in plants belonging to this genus, and even within this limit there are several species whose value as insecticides is very slight. A large number of Compositse indigenous to Austria have been tested and found to be of no value in this respect. The flowers of tansy ( Tanacetum vulyare) are said to have a slight stupefying effect.
The Py rethrums are hardy plants which bloom abun¬ dantly the second year from seed. The powder is prepared from the half-open flowers gathered during dry weather and dried in the shade under cover, but the process of gathering, drying and preparing involves so much time that their culture can only be made profitable where labour is cheap.
Insect powders have not attracted general attention as insecticides until within the last three or four years, during which time they have been introduced in various
* From the Canadian Entomologist, March. Reprinted • from the American Journal of Pharmacy, May, lb7fi.
24
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS. [July 12, 187^
forms in packages and boxes, accompanied by suitable blowers or insects guns for the purpose of properly dis¬ tributing the powder, and recommended for the destruc¬ tion of flies, cockroaches, fleas, bugs, etc. Sometimes these prepared articles have been artificially coloured so as to disguise their source, but all have owed their activity solely to the presence of the powdered flowers of one or other of these Pyrethrums.
House flies are very sensitive to the effects of these powders. A few puffs of the dust from an insect gun, blown into the air of a room with the doors closed, the discharges directed towards those parts where flies are congregated, will stupefy and kill them within a very short time. The powder is somewhat pungent, and to breathe an atmosphere charged with it will frequently cause a slight sneezing, but beyond this the operator need not anticipate any annoyance. Frequently during the past summer, when flies have been troublesome, we have pretty thoroughly charged the air in our dining-room and kitchen at night, closing the doors, and in the morning found all, or nearly all, the flies lying dead on the floor. A few mimites after its use they begin to drop on their backs, and after a short time die if a room be closed for half an hour after using the powder, few, if any, will escape. By some this energetic action has been attri¬ buted to the presence of a volatile oil in the flowers, by other and later investigators to a peculiar crystalline principle believed to be an alkaloid, but this point does not as yet seem to be fully settled.
More recently we have been experimenting with this powder on the green aphis which troubles our green-house plants. The usual plan of smoking with tobacco is an unpleasant remedy, and is also very injurious to many plants of delicate constitution, whereas the insect powder used to any extent is perfectly harmless to plant-life. After freely charging the air of a green-house with the powder, blowing it in fine clouds of dust among the plants, the tiny tormentors who are busily engaged in sucking the life out of the leaves and tender shoots, soon manifest symptoms of uneasiness and begin to drop from the plants to the ground, and in the course of an hour or two the larger portion of the enemy’s forces will be found lying sprawling on the earth, in the pots, or on the shelves and floor of the house, where, probably partly from the stupefying effects of the powder and partly from their natural inability to find their way to any given point, they fail to reach the plants again and hence perish. By applying the powder freely in the evening and giving the plants a thorough syringing in the morning, they may in the worst cases be almost freed from aphides by a single application ; it is better, however, to repeat its use the next evening, so as to make sure work. The powder does not appear to kill this aphis as it does the flies.- For the purpose of testing this point we placed a number of them in an open glass cell of a microscope slide and powdered then thoroughly, and found some of them alive after two days of such severe exposure to its influence. Having recently found a plant literally swarming with the green aphis, so that the sight of it was almost disgusting, we submitted it to the action of this powder one afternoon, having previously spread a large piece of white paper under the plant so that the effect of the powder on the insects might be distinctly seen. Almost immediately they began to fall on the paper, and in less than ten minutes a hundred or more of them were lying on their backs or crawling sluggishly about. In the course of half an hour some Jour or five hundred had fallen on the paper, and when the plant was examined again the following morning, there remained but very few on it, and most of these were removed by a slight syringing. We have had the powder used in green-houses by some of our friends, who also report its success. The matter is well worthy the attention of all those who indulge in window gardening or who grow plants in small conservatories attached to dwellings, since if this proves an efficient and economical substitute for
tobacco smoke, it will save much annoyance and some' loss. Success will necessarily depend on the quality of the material used, but after the experiments we have tried, we feel confident that with good Dalmatian powder there need be no failure. It will be interesting to learn a& opportunity offers how moths and other insects will, be affected by the use of insect powders. If the beautiful specimens which sometimes fly into our rooms at night can be drugged in this way and captured without a struggle, we may add many a perfect specimen to our collections which would otherwise be more or less defaced. There is quite a field for experiment here.
GERANIUM OIL.*
Under the name of geranium oil several essential oil derived from species of Pelargonium and Andropogon come into commerce, which on account of their rose-like odour are used as cheap substitutes for oil of roses as well as in its adulteration. The German true geranium oil, or oil of rose-leaved geranium, as well as the French gera¬ nium or “palma rosae” oil are obtained from the Pelargo¬ nium Raclula, by distillation of the leaves and flowers with water. It is colourless, sometimes, however, with a greenish, yellowish or even brownish colour, the latter especially being the most esteemed. It boils at 216° to 220° C., and solidifies at 16° C. and rotates a beam of polarized light to the right.
The smell is agreeable and resembles that of the rose. The so-called Algerian rose oil, from the leaves and flowers of the cultivated Pelargonium roscum, Willd., and P. odoratissimum, is very similar to the French oil, but is laevogyre, and is especially used in the adulteration of rose oil, but is itself adulterated with grass oil from various species of Andropogon.
The Turkish geranium oil (rose or roshd oil, oil of rose geranium, ginger grass oil) is the ethereal oil of Andropo¬ gon Pachnodes, a grass indigenous in the East Indies, Persia and Arabia. It is a yellowish thin liquid, with an agreeable aromatic odour and does not readily solidify. It comes into commerce principally through Smyrna and Bombay and is alleged to be prepared in Mecca.
The “palma rosae ” oil contains pelargonic acid, CgHjgO^, a colourless oily liquid, solidifying at a low temperature, melting at 10° C., and boiling at 260° C.; it is one of the series of fatty acids. Among the other constituents of geranium oil are geraniol, C10H18O, isomeric with borneol, and a colourless liquid having an agreeable rose-like odour which boils at 232° C., and upon heating with zinc chloride yields geranien, C10H16, as a colourless liquid, smelling of carrots, and boiling at 163° C.
According to Guibourt, rose oil, geranium oil and andropogon oil may be distinguished by means of iodine, nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Under a bell-glass is placed a capsule containing iodine and around this are placed watch glasses containing one or two drops of each oil. The true rose oil retains its colour, whilst both the other oils turn brown, the geranium taking by far the most intense colour. If instead of iodine copper filings over which nitric acid has been poured are put under the bell- glass, the glass becomes immediately filled with red vapour which is absorbed by the oils, the geranium oil becoming apple-green, and the andropogon oil and rose oil dark yellow, the former most quickly. If one or two drops of each of these three oils are mixed with an equal quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, the mixtures become brown, but while the mixture with rose oil retains its delicious odour, that with the geranium oil smells strong and repulsive, and the andropogon oil acquires a strong fatty odour.
* Dr. Gintl in Karmarsch and Heeren’s ‘ Technical Dic¬ tionary,’ from the Zeits. d. allg. Oesterr. Apot.-Vereins, vol. xvii., p. 268.
July 12, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS
25
WALNUT LEAVES AND THE EXTRACT OF WALNUT LEAVES.*
BY C. GOVAERTS.
Preparations of the walnut ( Juglans regia, L.), after having enjoyed in Prance the popularity often gained by recently introduced medicines, are not much now em¬ ployed. Experience has demonstrated, however, that the walnut may be classed among the plants most useful in medicine. The author quotes various authorities who speak highly of its antiscrofulous properties.
The Belgian Codex includes an extract of the dry leaves, and the extract enters into the composition of the “ Sirop de Vanier,” a preparation largely used. The author’s experiments have been directed to ascertaining whether this extract represents the maximum of the active principles contained in the leaves and what are the conditions that may influence the quantity of these prin¬ ciples in the leaves and in the extract.
The leaves of the walnut contain principally chloro¬ phyll, tannin, a volatile aromatic principle and an acrid bitter matter (juglandin) found more specially in the green husk and the epiderm of the seed. Distilled in the fresh state the leaves yield a rather aromatic limpid water, neutral to litmus paper.
The fresh juice is green, but upon being heated it abandons its chlorophyll and at the same time becomes sensibly darker in colour.
In drying the leaves lose 50 to 55 per cent, of their weight, but without sensibly altering in colour or taste. The petioles only turn brown.
These leaves cannot be collected according to the general rule, — i.e., at the commencement of the flowering, — for at that time they have scarcely issued from the buds and are far from possessing the desired properties.
If walnut leaves collected at the proper time and re¬ cently dried be compared with those met with in commerce the difference in the characters is striking. After some months in fact the dried leaves, exposed to the open air, turn brown and at the same time lose their aromatic odour and bitterness. This physical change, produced under the influence of moisture and air is the index of a chemical transformation that takes place after the drying. The prolonged action of air and moisture gradually con¬ verts the juglandin into an insoluble and insipid black substance and the tannin becomes partially insoluble or decomposed.
Experiments were made with* preparations from (1) leaves collected in June ; (2) leaves collected in October ; (3) leaves collected at the proper time, but which had been kept one year. Tannin being one of the most active principles of the leaves, this was estimated as indicative to a certain extent of the value of the re¬ spective preparations. The method adopted was that of Lowenthal, based upon the oxidation of the tannin by permanganate of potash in the presence of indigo carmine. A gram of each extract was dissolved in 100 c.c. of distilled water, and 20 c.c. of each solution were submitted to the action of the permanganate.
(a). An extract prepared from the juice of leaves collected in June, clarified by heat and evaporated. — Taste : bitter and astringent. Odour : aromatic. Solu¬ tion: limpid. Tannin in 1 gram of extract: 0T9gr.
(5). Similar leaves were submitted to distillation, and the residue filtered and evaporated to an extract. — Taste : slightly bitter. Odour : very slight. Solution : turbid. Tannin in 1 gram : 0T9 gr.
( c ). The remainder of the June leaves were dried in the open air and an extract prepared from them according to the Belgian Pharmacopoeia. — Taste : bitter and as¬ tringent. Odour: aromatic. Solution: limpid. Tannin in 1 gram : 0‘20 gr.
(cZ). Leaves collected in October were dried directly and converted into extract. — The product resembled (c) in every respect.
* Repertoire de Pharmacie, vol. vii., p. 145.
(e). Extract prepared from leaves one year old. — Taste : slightly astringent and slightly bitter. Odour: none. Solution : very dark. Tannin in 1 gram : 0T0 gr.
(/). Extract of commerce. — Similar to ( e ) with the exception of solution being limpid.
It appears therefore that the full grown leaves may be collected at any period during the fine weather, even as late as October, when they can be removed without injuring the tree. The extract of walnut, in order to represent the active principles as completely as possible, should be prepared with such leaves recently dried. The extract prepared from the defecated juice is as rich in tannin, but does not keep so well, whilst that prepared by decoction should be rejected. The leaves falling in autumn should not be used, although there is reason to believe that they are often employed in preparing the extract of commerce.
Walnut leaves of good quality are of a fine green colour on their upper surface and of a darker green underneath, with brown petioles. They have a parch¬ ment-like texture, an aromatic odour and a freely bitter and astringent taste. Altered leaves lose the greater part of their odour and bitterness, and turn a dirty green colour, approaching brown. Fallen autumn leaves some¬ times have yellow spots on their surface.
THE GAS QUESTION.*
BY DUNCAN C. DALLAS.
In a former article I endeavoured to show from my own case —
1. That although I had not required more gas, my con¬ sumption was over 75 per cent, excess.
2. That this had been going on for about fifteen months.
3. That after public outcry had been raised, and with¬ out any effort on my part to diminish consumption, the amount burnt returned to the normal rate ; and,
4. I suggested as a cause of increased consumption, that the gas supplied previously to the outcry had burnt away more quickly than the normal gas.
Now, it is remarkable how coincident in time with the outcry was the reversion to what I have termed the nor¬ mal gas. As the figures show there was a sudden drop in my consumption equivalent to 75 per cent.
Just previous to the outcry my consumption had been at the rate of 2100 feet per week. In the week May 13th to 25th my consumption was 1200 feet, i.e., just 75 per cent, less than the previous rate. And I believe this would be found to be a general experience. It is remark¬ able, too, that the increase, ranging over fifteen months previous to the outcry, should be also a little over 75 per cent. This fact, therefore, stands out clear, viz. the gas supplied for at least fifteen months previous to complaint burnt away 75 per cent, more rapidly than the gas sup¬ plied not only before the fifteen months, but since com¬ plaint became loud and general.
In the English Mechanic for June 27.th, 1879, much, space is given to the gas question, but entirely in the in¬ terests of the companies. In the number of same periodi¬ cal for the week July 4th the subject has been pru¬ dently dropped, although the facts in my first article were brought to the notice of the Editor.
In the number for June 27th no attempt is made to touch the gravamen of the charge against the companies. An unfortunate “Gas Consumer” is made to stand in the pillory in consequence of some rather wild suggestions as to the cause of the increased consumption. If he be nob a “man in buckram,” but a real individual, one-tenth the large space devoted to his punishment and demolition of his crude suggestions would have sufficed.
These advocates of the companies prove too much.. They argue as if by no possibility could any but the right, kind of gas be supplied to the consumer. As they seem so learned in gas matters I humbly think it behoves them
* From the Brewers' (Juaraian, July 8, 1879.
26
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 12, 1879.
to grapple with the real question. They cannot deny that there has been a great increase in consumption. And I think they will find it hard to deny that since the out¬ cry there has been a great and sudden diminution of con¬ sumption, which cannot be accounted for by more econo¬ mical methods of using. For, as I have shown by my own case, I purposely made no alteration in the conditions, and my rate reverted to that of 1876-7.
Messrs. “Sigma,” “Ethylene,” and other advocates of the companies, are. therefore on one of the horns of this dilemma. Either they know the cause or they do not. If they know the cause and do not confess it they are un candid and chargeable with what logicians term ignor - atio elenchi , and this wilfully, in order to throw us off the scent. If they do not know the cause they have no busi¬ ness to write about the matter.
I confess I am not one of those who believe that mixture with atmospheric air will account for the increased con¬ sumption. I think there has been a more subtle cause.
The important ingredient in coal gas as an illuminant is olefiant gas. Next in importance are vapours of hydro¬ carbons. Lastly, there is light carburetted hydrogen, or marsh gas. Now, the specific gravity of marsh gas is a little more than half that of olefiant gas. Therefore a volume of marsh gas will burn away much more quickly than an equal volume of olefiant gas. But the illuminat¬ ing quality of marsh gas is very feeble compared with olefiant gas. It would not do, therefore, to increase the quality of marsh gas unduly unless means could be found of increasing its illuminating quality. To one who is not in the secrets of the gas companies it is difficult of course to know what particular method has been adopted. But to show that it is possible to improve the illuminating quality of marsh gas in a simple yet scientific manner, and at the same time increase its volume, I beg to refer the advocates of the companies to ‘Ure’s Dictionary/ vol. ii., p. 552, 1875 edition, where they can read: —
“If marsh gas possessing, it will be remembered, a small amount of luminosity be decomposed by its passage through a heated tube or by the electric spark, the carbon it contains will be deposited, while the amount of hydro¬ gen set free will occupy double the volume of the orginal gas .” [The italics are mine.] “Yet the flame of this nearly pure hydrogen will be found to possess a greater luminosity than the flame of the original marsh gas, although it has lost nearly the whole of its light-giving material — accounted for by the presence of a very small quantity of acetylene produced during the decomposi¬ tion.”
I came upon this passage after I had arrived at a convic¬ tion that the increased consumption was due to the supply of a gas that burnt away rapidly. If, therefore, it has been by some such means that the increased consumption has been induced, however much I may admire, as I do admire, the beautiful scientific rationale of the process, and the more beautiful because of its simplicity, especially if by such economical means as the transmission of an electric spark through some huge volume of marsh gas, it can be in a “jiffey” (if I may be allowed the slang) con¬ verted into double its volume, not only without loss to its illuminating power, but with positive increase, yet I do object to paying 75 per cent, more when in the result it does me no better service than the original gas, but rather like its crudent parent, “Will o’ the Wisp,” brings me grief.
On the contrary, the gas ought to be cheaper. Nor would I be greedy. For, if without much increase of cost two volumes of gas are got where previously only one could be Obtained, we must hail as a benefactor the clever gas chemist or engineer who effects this. We should not grudge his fortunate company, if, say, they cheapened production 50 per cent, and kept a lion’s share for them¬ selves, but kindly gave us — something.
I am glad to see that The Pharmaceutical Journal (June 28th, 1879) has devoted a leader referring to the first article on the present subject in last number of The
Brewer's' Guardian, and urging the importance of the sug¬ gested Parliamentary inquiry. An excellent recommen¬ dation is also made in that leader, viz. that chemists and druggists who are large consumers of gas for heating aer well as illumination, “might be of especial service in helping to keep up an examination of the gas supplied to different quarters, and make observations as to its purity, composition, and illuminating power, that would be a useful check upon the results arrived at in other ways.”
This would be most valuable. For what satisfaction is it to be told that there is an elaborate system at the works for protecting us, if, when we examine our gas bills, we find that from some cause or another we have not been protected ? It is all very well to test milk at the udder of the cow, but it is more than aggravating to see it pour “sky-blue” from the milk-jug on our breakfast- table.
Let them go on protecting us at the works, but let us also be protected at the burners as regards what they deliver. It could be done very easily if Parliament would give just a little attention to the distressed gas con¬ sumers.
RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HISTORY OF DETONATING AGENTS.*
BY PROFESSOR ABEL, C.B., F.R.S.
Among the many explosive preparations which have during the last thirty years been proposed as substitutes for gunpowder, on account of greater violence and other special merits claimed for them, not one has yet competed with it successfully as a propelling agent, nor even as a safe and sufficiently reliable explosive agent for use in shells ; for industrial applications and for very important military or naval uses, dependent upon the destructive effects of explosives, it has had, however, to give place, to a very important extent, and in some instances altogether, to preparations of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine.
But there appeared little prospect that either gun-cotton or nitro-glycerine, whether used in their most simple con¬ dition or in the forms of various preparations, would assume positions of practical importance as explosive agents of reliable, and therefore uniformly efficient, character, until the system of developing their explosive force through the agency of a detonation, instead of through the simple agency of heat, was elaborated.
Before the first step in this important advance in the application of explosive agents was made by Alfred Nobel, about twelve years ago, the very variable behaviour of such substances as gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine, when exposed to the heat necessary for their ignition under comparatively slight modifications of attendant conditions ( e.g . as regards the completeness and strength of confine¬ ment or the position of the source of heat with reference to the main mass of the material to be exploded) rendered them uncertain in their action, and, at any rate, only applicable under circumstances which confined their use¬ fulness within narrow limits. The employment by Nobel of an initiative detonation, produced by the ignition of small quantities of mercuric fulminate or other powerful detonating substances, strongly confined, for developing the violent explosion, or detonation, of nitro-glycerine, opened a new field for the study of explosive substances, and the first practical fruit was the successful application of plastic preparations of nitro-glycerine and of compact forms of compressed gun-cotton, with simplicity and cer¬ tainty, to the production of destructive effects much more considerable than could be accomplished through the agency of much larger amounts of gunpowder, applied under the most favourable conditions. Whereas very strong con¬ finement has been essential for the complete explosion of these substances, so long as the only known means of bringing about their explosion consisted simply of the application of fire or sufficient heat, no confinement what-
* Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britaiu, Friday, March 21, 1879.
July 12, 1879.]
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.'
27
ever is needed for the development, with certainty, of a decidedly more violent explosive action than they are capable of exerting when thus applied, if they are detonated by submitting some small portion of the mass to the blow or concussion developed by a sharp detonation, such as is produced by the ignition of a small quantity of strongly confined mercuric fulminate.
The conditions essential to the development of detona¬ tion in masses of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, or pre¬ parations of them, and the relations to and behaviour towards each other of these and other explosive bodies, in their character or functions as detonating agents, have been made the subject of study by the lecturer during the last ten years, and some of the earlier results published by him in connection with this subject also led to the pursuit of experimental inquiries of analogous character by Champion and Pellet and others.
Some of the chief results attained by Mr. Abel’s experiments may be briefly summarized.
It was found that the susceptibility to detonation, as distinguished from explosion, through the agency of an initiative detonation, is not confined to gun-cotton, nitro¬ glycerine, and preparations containing those substances, but that it is shared, though in very different degrees, by all explosive compounds and mixtures.
It was demonstrated that the detonation of nitro¬ glycerine and other bodies, through the agency of an initiative detonation, is not ascribable simply to the direct operation of the heat developed by the chemical changes of the charge of detonating material, and that the remarkable property possessed by the sudden explosion of small quantities of certain bodies (the mercuric and silver fulminates) to accomplish the detonation of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, is accounted for satisfactorily by the mechanical force thus suddenly brought to bear upon some part of the mass operated upon. Most generally, there¬ fore, the degree of facility with which the detonation of a substance will develop similar change in a neighbouring explosive substance, may be regarded as proportionate to the amount of force developed within the shortest period of time by that detonation, the latter being in fact analogous in its operation to that of a blow from a hammer or of the impact of a projectile.
Thus, explosive substances which are inferior to mercuric fulminate in the suddenness, and the consequent momen¬ tary violence of their detonation, cannot be relied upon to effect the detonation of gun-cotton, even when used in comparatively considerable quantities. Percussion cap composition, for example, which is a mixture of fulminate with potassium chlorate, and is therefore much less rapid in its action than the pure fulminate, must be used in comparatively large quantities to accomplish the detona¬ tion of gun- cotton.
The essential difference between an explosion and what we now distinguish as a detonation lies in the compara¬ tive suddenness of the transformation of the solid or liquid explosive substance into gas and vapour.
The gradual nature of the explosion of gunpowder is illustrated, in its extreme, by burning a train of powder in open air ; the rapidity and consequent violence of the explosion is increased in proportion to the degree of con¬ finement of the exploding charge, or to the resistance opposed to the escape or expansion of the gases generated upon the first ignition of the confined substance. In pro¬ portion as the pressure is increased under which the pro¬ gressive transformation of the explosive takes place, the rapidity with which its particles are successively subjected to the action of heat is increased.
In the case of a very much more sensitive and rapidly explosive substance than gunpowder, such as mercuric fulminate, the increase in the rapidity of its transforma¬ tion, by strong confinement, is so great that the explosion assumes the character of a detonation in regard to sud¬ denness and consequent destructive effect. A still more sensitive and rapidly explosive material (such as the silver fulminate and iodide of nitrogen) produces when exploded
in open air effects ?Jkin to those of detonation ; yet even with these bodies, confinement operates in increasing the rapidity of the explosive to suddenness, and consequently in developing a more purely detonative action. Thus, the violence of explosion of silver fulminate is decidedly increased by confining the substance in a stout metal case, and the enclosure of iodide of nitrogen in a shell of plaster of paris has a similar effect. With chloride of nitrogen, the suddenness of detonation, and consequently the violence of action, was found to be very greatly increased even by confining the liquid beneath a thin layer of water.
Detonation, developed in some portion of a mass, is transmitted with a velocity approaching instantaneousness throughout any quantity, and even if the material is laid out in the open air in long trains composed of small masses. The velocity with which detonation travels along trains thirty or forty feet in length, composed of distinct masses of gun-cotton and of dynamite, has been determined by means of Noble’s chronoscope, and was found to range from 17,000 to 24,000 feet per second. Even when trains of these explosive agents were laid out with intervening spaces of half an inch between the individual masses com¬ posing the trains, detonation was still transmitted along the separated masses with great though diminished Telocity.
The suddenness with which detonation takes place has been applied as a very simple means of breaking up shells into small fragments and scattering these with con¬ siderable violence, with employment of very small charges of explosive agent. Thus by filling a 16-pr. common shell completely with water and inserting a charge of half an oz. of gun-cotton fitted to a detonating fuze, the shell being thoroughly closed by means of a screw plug, the force developed by the detonation of the small charge of gun-cotton is transmitted instantaneously in all directions by the water, and the shell is thus broken up into a num¬ ber of fragments averaging fourteen times the number produced by bursting a shell of the same size by means of the full amount of powder which it will contain (13 oz.). Employing one oz. of powder, in place of half an oz. of gun-cotton, in the shell filled with water, the compara¬ tively very gradual explosion of the powder charge is rendered evident by the result ; the shell being broken up into less than twenty fragments by the shock produced by the first ignition of the charge, transmitted by the water. In this case the shell is broken up by the minimum amount of force necessary for the purpose, before the explosive force of the powder charge is properly developed. Extensive comparative experiments carried on not long since by the RoyalArtillery,atOkehampton, demonstrated that this simple expedient of filling common shells with water and attaching a small charge of gun-cotton with its detonator to the fuze usually employed, allowed of their application as efficient substitutes for the comparatively complicated and costly shrapnel and segment shells.
Another illustration of the sharpness of action developed by detonation as compared with explosion, consequent upon the almost instantaneous character of the metamor¬ phosis which the explosive agent undergoes in the case of detonation, is afforded by a method which the lecturer applied some years since for comparing the violence of action of charges of gun-cotton and of dynamite arranged in different ways. The charges (5 lb.) to be detonated were freely suspended over the centres of plates of very soft steel of the best quality, which rested upon the flat face of a massive block, or anvil, of iron, having a large central circular cavity. The distance between the upper surface of the plate and the charge suspended over it, was four feet. The sharp blow delivered upon the plate by the air suddenly projected against it by the force of the detonation when the charge was fired, forced the metal down into the cavity of the anvil, producing cup-shaped indentations, the dimensions of which afforded means of comparing the violence of the detonation. A much larger charge of powder exploded in actual contact with the
28
THE PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS.
[July 12, 1879.
plate, would produce no alteration of form in the metal, and the same negative result would be furnished by the explosion over the plate of a heap of loose gun-cotton of the same or greater weight than the charges detonated. The above method of experiment was devised, in the first instance, by Mr. Abel, in July, 1875, for comparing the quality of some specimens of Llandore steel proposed to be used by the Admiralty for shipbuilding purposes, with samples of malleable iron, and it has since been employed by Mr. Adamson in carrying out a very useful series of experiments, recently communicated to the Iron and Steel Institute.
It has been stated that detonation can be transmitted from one mass of gun-cotton or dynamite to another through intervening air-spaces. The extent to which such spaces can be introduced without checking detona¬ tion is obviously regulated by the size of the masses of explosive detonated ; but the distances of air-space through which the detonation of a moderate quantity of the explosive agent will communicate to similar masses, are very limited, a space of 2 inches being sufficient to pre¬ vent the detonation produced by a mass of 8 oz. of gun¬ cotton, freely exposed, from communicating to contiguous ones. If the dispersion of the force is prevented in part, and direction is given to the gases violently projected from the centre of detonation, the power of transmitting detonation to separated masses of explosive is increased to a remarkable degree. This is readily accomplished through the agency of tubes, the charge first detonated being just inserted into one extremity, while that to which the detonation is to be transmitted is inserted into the other ; or separate charges may be placed at different distances inside a long tube, with long intervening spaces, the initiative charge being inserted at one end. A few illustrations of the results thus obtained may be given. The detonation of a 1-oz. disk of gun-cutton in open air will not transmit detonation with certainty to other disks placed at a greater distance than half an inch from it ; but if it be just inserted into one end of an iron tube 2 feet long and T25 inch in diameter, a similar disk, or even a plug of loose gun-cotton inserted into the other